C1

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  • Created by: ireynolds
  • Created on: 15-05-17 16:24
How big are atoms?
Can't been seen with a microscope.
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What charge does a nucleus have?
Positive
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What charge does an electron have?
Negitively charged.
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What do the electrons move around the nucleus in?
Layers known as shells.
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What can atoms form bonds to make?
Molecules or compounds.
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What part of the atom is involved in making bonds?
The electrons.
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What gives an atom a charge?
Losing or gaining one or more electrons. (losing=positive, gaining=negative).
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What are ions?
Charged atoms.
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What happens if a positive ion and a negative ion meet?
They'll be attracted to each other and join together, forming an ionic bond.
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What is a covalent bond?
When the atoms share a pair of electrons.
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What does a molecular formula show?
The number and type of atoms in a molecule E.G; CH4
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What does a displayed formula show?
The atoms and covalent bonds in a molecule as a picture.
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What do brackets in a molecular formula mean?
That there's the amount of things inside the bracket, that there are in the number after the bracket.
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What's the formula for carbon dioxide?
CO2
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Hydrogen?
H2
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Water?
H2O
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Oxygen?
O2
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Carbon monoxide?
CO
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Hydrochloric acid?
HCl
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Calcium chloride?
CaCl2
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Magnesium chloride?
MgCl2
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Sodium carbonate?
Na2CO3
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Calcium carbonate?
CaCO3
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What the molecules on the left side of a chemical equation called?
Reactants
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What are the molecules on the right side of the equation called?
Products.
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What do symbol equations show?
The formulas of the reactants and the products.
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Why do symbol equations have to be balanced?
As there needs to be the number of atoms on each side, they don't disappear.
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How are you allowed to balance an equation?
Put big numbers in front of molecules.
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What are emulsifiers?
Additives that make oil and water mix well together.
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What are additives?
Chemicals added to food to improve colour, flavour or shelf-life.
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What do food colour additives do?
Make food look more appetising.
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What do flavour enhancer additives do?
Bring and the taste and smell of a food without adding a taste of their own.
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What do antioxidants additives do?
Help to preserve food.
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What do emulsifier additives do?
Help oil and water blend together in foods like mayonaise and ice cream.
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What are emulsions?
When oil and water is mixed together.
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What are emulsion made up of?
Tiny droplets of one liquid suspended in another liquid.
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Why do oil and water naturally seperate into two layers, with the oil on top?
As they have different densities.
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Are emulsifiers molecules?
Yes.
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What part of the emulsifier molecule is hydrophilic?
It's head, meaning it is attracted to water, so it will bond to water molecules.
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What part of the emulsifier molecule is hydrophobic?
The tail, meaning it's attracted to oil, so it will bond to oil molecules.
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How do emulsifiers work?
As the oil will form oil droplets surrounded by a coating of emulsifier molecules with the hydrophillic head facing outwards. Other droplets will be repelled by the head, so it won't seperate out.
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What happens when you cook food?
The chemical structure of the substance changes irreversibly.
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Why do some foods have to be cooked?
Better taste and texture, easier to digest, high temp kills of microbes, some foods are poisonous when raw.
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What happens when you cook eggs and meat?
As they contain protein, protein molecules change shape when heated, as the energy from cooking breaks some chemical bonds in the protein. Giving the food a more edible texture, but it's irreversible.
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What is the chemical change in eggs and meat called?
Denaturing.
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What happens when you cook potatoes?
As they're plants they're surrounded by a rigid cell wall made of cellulose, and humans can't digest cellulose. Cooking will rupture the cell walls, and make the starch grains inside cells swell up, making it softer and easier to digest.
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What happens to baking powder when it's heated?
It undergoes thermal decomposition.
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What is thermal decomposition?
When a substance breaks down into simpler substances when heated. Many thermal decompositions are helped along by a catalyst.
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What's the word equation for the thermal decomposition of baking powder?
sodium hydrogencarbonate >>> sodium carbonate + carbon dioxide + water.
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How can you test for carbon dioxide?
It can be detected using limewater, as CO2 turns limewater cloudy when it's bubbled through.
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What are chemicals that smell nice usually used as?
Perfumes and air fresheners.
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What's a common chemical used as a perfume?
Esters, as they smell pleasant.
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Are esters common in nature?
Yes, as fruity smells (like apples) and flowery smells (like jasmine) contain esters.
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Why are esters manufactured synthetically?
To be used as perfumes and flavourings.
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How do you make esters by esterification?
By heating a carboxylic acid with an alcohol, often with an acid catalyst.
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What's the word equation for esterification?
Acid + Alcohol >>> Ester + Water
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What's the method for esterification?
1) mix 10cm3 of carboxylic acid with 10cm3 of an alcohol 2) add 1cm3 of concentrated sulfuric acid to it and warm gently for 5 mins 3) put mixture into 150cm3 of sodium carbonate solution...
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continued...
...(to neutralise the acids) and smell carefully- the fruity smelling product will be the ester.
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What properties do perfumes need?
1) easily evapourate(for scent) 2) non-toxic 3) won't react with water(sweat) 4) won't irritate the skin 5) insoluble in water(so won't come off easily when wet)
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What do perfumes and cosmetic products have to have done to them before they can be sold?
Be tested thouroughly so that they're safe to use.
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Why are some people okay with testing products on animals?
Worth testing on animals to avoid damaging humans.
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Why are some people against testing products on animals?
As it's wrong to cause suffering to animals for cosmetic reasons, especially as the results may not be conclusive.
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What are the laws on animal testing for cosmetics in the EU?
Because of concerns of animal welfare, testing on animals for cosmetic products has been banned. A few certain tests are still permitted.
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What do states of matter depend on?
The forces between particles.
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What are the forces between particles in solids like?
1)Strong forces of attraction between particles so they're held in fixed positions in a regular lattice arrangement. 2)Particles don't move from positions, so solids keep a definate shape and volume 3)Particles vibrate about positions, ...
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Continued...
... so the hotter the solid becomes,the more they vibrate and causes them to expand slightly.
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What happens if you heat a solid?
You'll give the particles more kinetic energy and eventually it will melt and become liquid.
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What are the forces between particles in liquids like?
1)Some force of attraction between particles and they're free to move past each other but do tend to stick together 2) Don't keep a definite shape and will flow to fill a container bottom, but keep the same volume. 3)Particles are constantly moving..
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...continued
...3) the particles move constantly with random motion, the hotter it gets the faster they move, causing it to expand slightly.
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What eventually happens if you heat a liquid?
It will boil and become gas eventually.
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What are the forces between particles like in gases?
1)Nearly no force of attraction between the particles; they're free to move, travel in straight lines and only interact when they collide. 2)Don't keep definite shape or volume and will fill a whole container, when particles bounce of a containers...
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continued...
... when particles bounce off container walls they exert a pressure on the walls 3)Particles move constantly with random motion, getting faster when it's hotter, they expand when heated or their pressure increases.
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What is evaporation?
A liquid is heated and the heat energy goes to the particles so they move faster. Some move faster than others, and fast-moving ones near the surface will overcome the forces of attraction and escape.
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What's volatility?
How easily a liquid evaporates.
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Why do perfumes need to be quite volatile?
So they evaporate enough for us to be able to smell them, so perfumes are volatile with little heat energy, and weak attraction, so it can evaporate and be smelled.
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Explain dissolving?
When bonds holding the solvent molecules together sometimes break when a solute is added, forming a mixture.
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What does whether the bonds break depend on?
How strong the attractions are between the molecule in each substance, and how strong the attractions are between the two substances.
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What's a solution?
Mixture of a solute and a solvent that doesn't seperate out.
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What is a solute?
The substance being dissolved.
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What's a solvent?
The liquid the sollute is being dissolved into.
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What does soluble mean?
Means something will dissolve.
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What's insoluble?
Means something will not dissolve.
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What's solubility?
A measure of how much will dissolve.
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Why is nail varnish insoluble in water?
1)the molecules in it are strongly attracted to each other, stronger than the attraction between the nail varnish molecules and the water ones. 2)Molecules of water are strongly attracted to each other, stronger between that with the nv molecules.
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Why won't nail varnish form a solution?
As the two substances are more attracted to themselves than each other.
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What is nail varnish soluble in?
Acetone.
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Why is nail varnish soluble in acetone?
As the attraction between acetone molecules and nail varnish molecules is stronger than the attraction to themselves.
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What does the solubility of a substance depend on?
It depends on the solvent used.
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What needs to be considered when choosing a solvent?
Solubility of the other thing, boiling point, if it's toxic, if it's flammable, other properties.
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What do pigments give paints?
Their colour.
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What 3 things does paint normally contain?
Solvent, binding medium, pigment.
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What's the binding medium, what does it do?
A liquid that carries the pigment bits and holds them together, when it goes solid it sticks the pigments to the painted surface.
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What do the solvent do in paint?
Thins the paint and makes it easier to spread.
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Are paints colloids?
Yes.
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What is a colloid?
It consists of tiny particles of one thing dispersed (mixed) in another thing. They're mixed in but not dissolved.
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What kinds of particles can be in a colloid?
Solids, liquid droplets or bubbles of gas.
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Why don't colloids seperate out?
Because the particles are so small, so won't seperate at the bottom.
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What does a paint colloid contain?
Particles of a pigment dispersed in a liquid.
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What kind of paints are emulsion paints?
water-based.
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What's the solvent used in emulsion paints?
Water
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What's the binding medium used in emulsion paints?
An acrylic or vinyl acetate polymer.
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What do water based emulsion paints leave behind when they dry?
It dries when the solvent evapourates, leaving the binder and pigment as a thin solid film.
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Why are emulsion paints ideal for painting inside walls?
As they're fast drying and don't produce harmful fumes.
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What kind of paints are traditional gloss paint and artists oil paint?
Oil-based.
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What's the binding medium in oil-based paints?
Oil
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What's the solvent in oil-based paints?
An organic compound that can dissolve oil.
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Explain the two stages that oil paints evapourate in?
1) the solvent evapourates 2) the oil is oxidised by oxygen in the air before turning solid. Therefore they take longer to dry than water-based paints.
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Why are they best for painting things outside and metalwork?
As they're glossy, waterproof and hardwearing. But as the solvents used in them often produce harmful fumes.
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What do thermochromic pigments do?
Change colour or become transparent when heated or cooled.
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How can they be used to make a colour coded temperature scale?
As different pigments change colour at different temperatures, so a mixture of different ones.
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What's a use of this colour-coded temperature scale?
Basic thermometers (forehead ones)
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Uses of thermographic pigments?
Fancy kettles, baby products(bath toys, spoons) as a safety feature, mugs, mood rings.
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Why are thermographic pigments mixed with acrylic paint?
For a wide range of colojur changes, like blue pigment with yellow paint will make yelloe paint that changes to green.
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What are thermographic paint mixtures used in?
Novelty mugs, so the design changes, or so the pigment will go transparent revealing an image.
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What do phosphorescent pigments do?
Glow in the dark.
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How do phosphorescent pigments work?
By absorbing natural light/artificial light and storing it's energy in their molecules, it's then released as light over a period of time.
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What are uses of phosphorescent pigments?
Watches or clocks, traffic signs, emergency exits, toys and novelty decorations.
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What did glow in the dark watches used to be made with?
Radioactive paints, which would glow for years, but wern't safe as gave a dose of atomic radiation, so phosphorescent pigments are a safer alternative.
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How are polymers formed?
When lot's of small molecules called monomers joined together; reaction is called polymerisation.
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What conditions does polymerisation need?
High pressure and a catalyst.
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What are plastics?
Long-chain molecules called polymers, usually carbon based and their monomers are often alkenes.
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What are unsaturated compounds?
Molecules with at least one double covalent bond between carbon atoms.
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What are saturated compounds?
Molecules with no double bond between carbon atoms.
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What are addition polymers made from?
Unsaturated monomers.
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What happens in addition polymerisation?
Lot's of unsaturated monomer molecules (alkenes) can open up their double bonds and join together to form polymer chains.
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How do you draw the displayed formula of an addition polymer from from the displayed formula of it's monomer?
Join the carbons together in a row, but with no double bonds, put brackets around the repeating bit and an 'n' after tpo show it's repeating.
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What holds the atoms together in polymer chains?
Strong covalent bonds.
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What determines the properties of a plastic?
The forces between the different chains.
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What properties do weak forces give?
If the plastic's chains are held together by weak intermolecular forces, the chains will be free to slide over each other. The plastic will be stretched easily, and ave a low melting point.
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What properties do strong forces give?
Some plastics have stronger bonds between the polymer chains(covalent bonds, cross-linking bridges), meaning plastics have higher melting points, are ridgid and can't be stretched, as the crosslinks hold them together firmly.
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Uses of strong, rigid polymers?
e.g; High density polyethene. Plastic milk bottles.
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Uses of light, stretchable polymers?
e.g; low density polyethene. Plastic bags and squeezy bottles >>> It has a low melting point, so not goof for hot stuff.
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What are the properties of PVC?
Strong and durable, but can be made either rigid or stretchy.
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What's PVC used for?
Rigid; window frames&piping. Stretchy; synthetic leather.
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What's polystyrene foam used in?
Packaging to protect breakable things, dispolsable coffee cups(trapped air in foam= good thermal insulator)
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What's nylon?
A synthetic polymer used to makeclothes, it's not water proof.
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How can nylon fabrics be made waterproof?
By being coated with polyurethane; making it waterproof, hradwearing and to keep uv light out.
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What's the problem with polyurethane coating?
Doesn't let water vapour pass through it, so sweatcondenses of inside, making hot,wet and uncomfortable.
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What do products like gore-tex have?
Useful properties of nylon and polyurethane, but are also breathable.
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How are gore-tex fabrics made?
By laminating a thin film of of plastic called expanded PTFE onto another fabric(nylon) to make it studier.
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How is the PTFE film breathable and water proof?
As it has tiny holes to let water vapour through, but is waterproof as holes are too small to let big droplets through, and as the PTFE repels water.
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Are polymers biodegradable?
NO (mostly)
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Disadvantages of putting polymers in landfill?
Still be there for many years, fill up quickly, waste of land, waste of plastic.
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Negatives of burning plastics?
Release acidic gases(sulfur dioxide), poisenous gases(hydrogen chloride&hydrogen cyanide) and waste of plastic.
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Best way the dispose of plastics?
Reuse and recyclye, but sorting them is difficult and expensive.
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What kind of polymers are chemists trying to develope?
Ones that biodegrade or dissolve.
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What's a hydrocarbon?
Any compound formed from carbon and hydrogen atoms only.
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Uses of hydrocarbons?
Fuels and plastics.
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What are atoms in hydrocarbon molecules held together by?
Very strong covalent bonds, formed when atoms share electrons.
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How many covalent bonds do carbon atoms make?
4, to fill up outer shell.
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How many covalent bonds do hydrogen atoms make?
1
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What are alkanes?
Chains of carbon atoms with with two(middle) or three(end) hydrogen atoms attached to each one.
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Why are alkanes saturated compounds?
Contain only single covalent bonds between their carbon atoms.
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What happens when an alkane is added to bromine water?
It won't decolourise it.
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Why won't alkanes form form polymers?
As there's no double bonds to open up.
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What are the first four alkanes?
Methane CH4, ethane C2H6, propane C3H8, butane C4H10.
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How are alkenes different from alkanes?
Have double bonds.
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How are the double bonds in alkenes formed?
To fill up their outer shells, two atoms will share two pairs of electrons not just one.
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What are alkenes??
Hydrocarbons with one or more double bonds between carbon atoms.
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Are alkenes unsaturated compounds?
Yes.
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How can alkenes form polymers?
By opening up their double bonds to be part of the long chain.
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Why are alkenes much more reactive than alkanes?
As they have double bonds which can open and join up.
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What are the first 3 alkenes?
Ethane, propane and butane.
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What the formula for all alkenes with one double bond?
CnH2n
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What's bromine water?
Bright orange solution containing bromine, it's very reactive so will break double bonds.
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What does an alkene do to bromine water?
Decolourise it.
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What are finite resources?
Ones that will run out.
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How is crude oil formed?
Over millions of years, with high temperature and pressure, buried remains of plants and animals turn into crude oil.
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What is crude oil a mixture of?
Lot's of different hydrocarbons.
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How are the different compounds in crude oil seperated?
By fractional distillation.
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How does fractional distillation work?
The oil is heated untill most of it is gas and it enters a fractionating column, and the liquid bitumen is drained off. There's a temperature gradient in the column(Cooler as goes up). Ones with high boiling points leave near bottom, and lower oilin
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Which hydrocarbons have higher boiling points?
The longer hydrocarbon, so they turn to liquid and drain out the column early on, near bottom.
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Which hydrocarbons have lower boiling points?
The shorter ones, so they leave near the top where it is cooler.
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What does each fraction contain?
A mixture of hydrocarbons with similar boiling points.
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What's the order of the fractions, starting with lower boiling point?
LPG, Petrol, Naphtha, Kerosene, Diesel, Oil, Bitumen.
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Uses of LPG?
Lighter fuel(gas), has around 3 carbons in each chain.
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Uses of Petrol?
Car fuel, has around 8 carbons in each chain.
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Uses of naphtha?
Medicine, has around 10 carbons in each chain.
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Uses of kerosene?
Air craft fuel, has around 15 carbons in each chain.
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Uses of diesel?
Vehicle fuel, around 20 carbons in each chain.
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Uses of oil?
Heating, fuel, lubricating oils. Around 40 carbons in each chain.
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Uses of bitumen?
Tarmac, around 70+ carbons in each chain.
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What changes as the size of the hydrogen molecule increases?
1) boiling point increases. 2)Less flammable 3) More viscous(doesn't flow easily) 4)Less volatile(doesn't evapourate easily)
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What are the two types of bonds in crude oil?
1)strong covalent bonds between the carbons and hydrogens within each hydrocarbon molecule 2)Intermolecular forces of attraction between different hydrocarbon molecules in the mixture.
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How do molecules become gas in fractional distillation?
As it's heated, the molecules get extra energy. The molecules move about more and may eventually have enough energy to overcome the intermolecular forces, and becomes a gas.
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Why don't the hydrocarbon chains break?
As the covalent bonds holding the molecule together are much stronger than the intermolecular forces, so they don't break.
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Why do bigger molecules have higher boiling points than smaller ones do?
As the intermolecular forces of attraction break more easily in in small molecules, as they're much stronger in bigger molecules, as bigger ones have more places it can be attached still.
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What is cracking?
Splitting up long-chain hydrocarbons.
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What does cracking turn long alkane molecules into?
Smaller alkane and alkene molecules (much more useful)
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What kind of a reaction is it?
Thermal decomposition.
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Why is cracking done?
As there's more of a demand for products like petrol and kerosene, than longerones. And to produce alkene molecules to make polymers.
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What are the conditions needed for cracking?
Vapourised hydrocarbons, powdered catalyst (aluminium oxide), and 400-700c.
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What happens on the powdered aluminium oxide catalyst?
The long-chain molecules split appart 'crack' on the surface of catalyst bits.
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What will a long-chain hydrocarbon crack to make?
Shorter alkane molecule, and an alkene.
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What do we need crude oil for?
Energy, fuel, raw materials.
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Why has the demand for crude oil increased?
Population increase and industrialisation.
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Political problems of oil?
1)stocks used, prices will rise and countries may stop selling to others 2) countries with most oil and gas will have power over others,causing conflict 3) harder for countries without natural supply t get it, and have to rely on less developed ones.
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Environmental problems of crude oil?
1)Oil spills ans slicks 2) Covers birds feathers, stopping waterproof so die from cold and can't fly 3)Detergents used to clean up harm wildlife.
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What 7 factors should be considered when choosing a fuel?
1) energy value 2) availability 3) storage 4) cost 5) toxicity 6) ease of use 7) pollution
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When does complete combustion happen?
When there's a plentiful supply of oxygen.
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What will complete combustion of any hydrocarbon produce?
Only carbon dioxide and water as waste products = relatively harmless.
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What colour will a flame burn with when there's plenty of oxygen?
Clean blue.
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What's the word equation for complete combustion?
hydrocarbon + oxygen >>>> carbon dioxide + water
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Method for showing a fuel burning to give H2O and CO2?
Burn hexane into a tube and water will collect in u-tube surrounded by crushed ice, the CO2 will turn limewater cloudy in a test tube. Check the water is water my measuring it's boiling point.
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What does incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons produce?
Carbon monoxide and carbon.
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What colour will the flame burn?
Smoky yellow.
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What's the word equation for incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons?
hydrocarbon + oxygen >>>> carbon dioxide + water + carbon monoxide + carbon
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Why is it important to regularly service gas appliances?
As carbon monoxide is colourless, odourless and poisenous gas, that kills people.
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Which gives out the most heat energy complete combustion or incomplete combustion?
Complete combustion.
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Signs of incomplete combustion?
Sooty marks.
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Explain phase 1 of the atmospheres evolution? (volcanoes)
1) The earths's atmosphere cooled, formed a thin crust and volcanoes kept erupting 2) this 'degassing' released CO2(most), steam and ammonia. 3)It settled down and the atmosphere was mostly CO2 and steam, which condensed to form oceans.
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Explain phase 2 of the atmospheres evolution? (green plants evolved)
1) alot of CO2 dissolved in oceans 2) green plants evolved and released O2 and removed CO2 by photosynthesis 3) Most of C02 locked as fossil fuels and in sedimentary rocks 4) Nitrogen put in atmosphere by ammonia and O2 reacting and by denitrifying b
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continued...
...bacteria 5) as N2 isn't very reactive the amount increased but wasn't broken down.
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Explain phase 3? (ozone layer and animals)
1) oxygen killed off organisms that couldn't tolerate it 2) evolution of more complex organisms using oxygen 3) it created ozone layer blocking harmful rays so complex organisms can evolve 4) virtually no CO2 left now
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What's the percentage composition of the earth's current atmosphere?
nitrogen= 78%, oxygen=21%, 0.035% carbon dioxide, some water vapour and noble gases.
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Why is carbon the key to the greenhouse affect?
As exists as CO2 in atmosphere as carbon dioxide gas, and is in many green house gases like methane.
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What do respiration, combustion and decay do in carbon cycle?
Add CO2 and remove O2.
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What does photosynthesis do in the carbon cycle?
Removes carbon dioxide and adds oxygen.
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Why don't the processes balance out anymore?
As humans have upset the natural carbon cycle.
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Why have pop increase and industrialisation caused increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere?
As more people resire, more burning fossil fuels for energy as the average energy demand per person has increased. Also by deforestation for new land.
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What is acid rain caused by? (chemicals)
sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides
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Where does the sulfur dioxide come from? so2
Sulfur impurities in the fossil fuels.
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Where do the nitrogen oxides come from?
From a reaction between nitrogen and oxygen in air, caused by the heat of burning (happens in internal combustion engines of cars).
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How is acid rain formed?
When sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides mix with clouds forming dillute sulfuric acid and nitric acid, which falls as rain.
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What are the main causes of acid rain?
Power stations and internal combustion engines in cars.
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Problems with acid rain?
causes water sources to become acidic and plants and animals die, kills trees and damages limestone buildings and statues, it also causes metal to corrode.
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What's photochemical smog?
Type of air pollution caused by sunlight acting on oxides of nitrate, the oxides combine with oxygen in the air to produce ozone (O3). It can cause breathing difficulties, headaches and tiredness.
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How is carbon monoxide poisonous?
As it stops the blood carrying oxygen round the body properly, and lack of oxygen leads to fainting, coma or death.
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How is most carbon monoxide formed?
When petrol or diesel in engines is burnt with incomplete combustion.
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Why is it important that atmospheric pollution is controlled?
1) Makes life unhealthy for organisms, respiratory illnesses have increased in recent years. 2)
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What are catalytic converters?
They're on motor vehicles and reduce the amount of carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides getting into the atmosphere. It helps unpleasant exhaust gases react to mkae things less immediately dangerous.
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What is the catalyst in a catalytic converter usually?
A mixture of platinum and rhodium.
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What's the word equation for it?
carbon monoxide + nitrogen oxide >>>> nitrogen + carbon dioxide
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