Biology Biotechnology Definitions

Clones are

Genes, cells or whole organisms that carry identical genetic material because they are derived from the same original DNA

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The advantages of asexual reproduction are

1) it's quick, allowing organisms to take advantage of resources in the environment 2) can be completed if sexual reproduction fails 3) all offspring have the genetic information to survive in their environment

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The disadvantage of asexual reproduction is

1) it does not produce genetic variety, and genetic parental weakness will be in all offspring, if the environment changes, then all genetically identical organisms will be equally susceptible

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Natural vegetative propogation is

Refers to the production of structures in an organism that can grow into new individual organisms. These offspring contain the same genetic information as the parent and so are clones of the parent

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During natural vegetative propogation in English elm, following destruction or damage to the parent plant, new growth in the form of

Basal sprouts appears within 2 months from the meristem tissue in the trunk close to the ground, where least damage is likely to have occured

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The two main methods of artificial vegetative propogation are

1) Taking cuttings - a section of the stem is cut between leaf joints, treated with hormones and then planted 2) grafting - a shoot section is joined to an already growing root and stem, the graft is identical to the parent but not the rootstock

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Tissue culture can also be used in artificial propogation for

Large scale cloning

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Tissue culture is

Refers to the separation of cells of any tissue type and their growth in or on a nutrient medium containing plant hormones that stimulate development of the complete plant

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Outlined steps of micropropogation: tissue culture

1) explant taken 2) sterilised 3) placed on nutrient growth medium 4) cells divide but do not differentiate forming callus 5) single callus cells placed on shoot growth hormones 6) then placed on root growing hormones 7) acclimatised (greenhouse)

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A cloned animal is

One that has been produced using the same genetic information as another animal, such an animal has the same genotype as the donor organism

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There are two main methods of artificially cloning animals

1) splitting embryos (artificial identical twins) 2) Nuclear transfer (using enucleated eggs like Dolly the sheep)

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The advantages of cloning animals are 1) high value animals eg milky cows can be cloned in large numbers

2) rare animals can be cloned to preserve species 3) genetically modified animals eg sheep with pharmaceuticals in milk can be quickly reproduced

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The disadvantages of cloning animals are 1) high value animals are not produced with animal welfare in mind eg chickens with no legs

2) as in plants, mass genetic uniformity makes the species unable to adapt to changes in environment 3) animals may not remain healthy in the long term

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Non reproductive (the book means theraputic) is

The use of cloned cells to generate cells, tissues and organs to replace those damaged by disease or accidents

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There are many advantages of theraputic (non reproductive) cloning

1) genetically identical so will not be rejected 2) an end to waiting for donor organs 3) are totipotent so can be used for any cell reproduction 4) likely to be less dangerous than a major operation

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There are many possibilities of theraputic cloning, eg 1) regenerating heart muscle following a heart attack

2) repair of nervous tissue from diseases such as multiple sclerosis 3) repair of the spinal chord

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Theraputic cloning is not currently allowed to be used as people have

Ethical objections, and some people think there is a lack of understanding on how these clones will behave over time

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In 2008 skin cells could be reprogrammed to become pluripotent, which would have less

Ethical objections and if this method can be proven to be safely developed the technique could replace the nuclear transfer method

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Biotechnology is

Technology based on biology and involves the exploitation of living organisms or biological processes, to improve agriculture, animal husbandry, food science, medicine and industry

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In the production of food eg cheese and yoghurt making the bacteria

Lactobacillus grow in milk to change the flavour and the texture - in doing so they prevent the growth of other bacteria which would spoil the food

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For the production of drugs eg penicillin the fungus

Penicillum are grown in culture and produces the antibiotic as a by-product of its metabolism

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Microorganisms are used in biotechnical industry because 1) they grow rapidly in favourable conditions with a fast generation time some as little as 30 minutes

2) often produce proteins or chemicals that are released into the surrounding medium and can be harvested 3) can be genetically engineered to produce specific chemicals 4) not dependant on climate 5) purer products than those from chemical synthesis

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A culture is

A growth of microorganisms, this may be a single species (pure culture) or a mixed species (mixed culture), microorganisms can be cultured in a liquid such as nutrient broth or a solid surface such as nutrient agar gel

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The standard growth curve for a culture of microorganisms is labelled

Lag, Log, Stationary, Death

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Primary metabolites are

Substances produced by an organism that are part of its normal growth, they include amino acids, proteins, enzymes, nucleic acids, ethanol and lactate

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Secondary metabolites are

Substances produced by an organism that are not part of its normal growth, the antibiotic chemicals produced by a number of microorganisms are almost all secondary metabolites

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The growing conditions in an industrial fermenter can be manipulated by adjusting

Temperature, type and time of nutrient, oxygen concentration, pH

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Batch culture is where

A fixed quantity of nutrient is added and products are removed at the end of the period, useful for secondary metabolite production

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Continuous culture is where

Nutrients are added and products removed at regular intervals - useful for primary metabolites

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Aseptic technique refers to

Any measure taken at any point in a biotechnological process to ensure that unwanted microorganisms do not contaminate the culture that is being grown or the products that are being extracted

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Asepsis is

The absence of unwanted microorganisms

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Immobilisation of enzymes refers to any technique where

Enzyme molecules are held, seperated from the reaction mixture, substrate molecules can bind to the enzyme molecules and the products formed go back into the reaction mixture leaving the enzyme molecules in place

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Downstream processing is known as

The extraction and separation and purification of enzyme from the fermentation mixture,

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The advantages of immobilising enzymes are

1) enzymes not present with products so downstream processing cost low 2) enzymes are immediately available for reuse 3) immobilised enzymes are more stable as the matrix protects them

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The disadvantages of immobilising enzymes are

1) immobilisation requires additional time, equipment and materials 2) immobilised enzymes may be less active as they are held separate 3) any contamination is costly as the whole system would need to be stopped

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Biology Biotechnology Definitions

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