Biology Paper One

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what is mitosis?
cell division that happens in body cells
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what is the cell that is dividing calles?
cell that divides is called parent cell
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how many cells does mitosis make?
two identical daughter cells
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what are the two cells called?
daughter cells
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what are the stages of mitosis?
interphase prophase metaphase anaphase telophase IPMAT
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what happens in interphase?2
chromosones visible, dna already copied
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what happens in propase?1
each chromosomes consist of two chromatids
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what happens in metaphase?2
nuclear membrance breaks down and chromosomes line up along middle of cell
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what happens in anaphase?2
chromatids separate and pulled each pair to pole of the cell, chromatid can be called chromosomes
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what happens in telophase?2
spinal fibres disappear and a new nuclear membrane froms round each group of chromosomes, cells splits in tow(cytokinesis)
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which phase does the cell spend most of its time in?
interphase
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what is mitosis used for?3
growth, repeair, asexual reproduction
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what happens after growth?
cells can differentiate into specialised cells
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when does mitosis happen?
when new diploid cells are needed for growth repair and asexual reproduction
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what causes cancer?
uncontrolable cell division by mitosis
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what does differentistion create?
specialised cells adpated to carry put a specific function
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examples of specialised animal cells? 5
red blood cells. egg and sperm, nerve cells, bone cells, smooth muscle cells
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how do plants divide?
divide b y mitosis
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where does the mitosis division happen in plants?
behined tips of shoots and roots
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in plants what takes water by osmosis causing the plant cell to elongate ?
small vacuole
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examples of specialed plant cells?5
xylem , phloem, mesophyl cells, root hair cells, stoma cells
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what is growth?
is a permanant increase in size
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which two ways can growth be measured?
increased in length and increase in mass
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what percentile chart is used for?
compares the growth of an individual of peopl with same sex and age
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what are stem cells?
cells that can divide to produce many types of cells
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are embryo cells specialised?
no
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what happens to the embryo cells?
they divide to produce all the specialised cells in the body with neurones and muslce cells
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how many types of cells are there?
three kinds of stem cells
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where are embryonic stem cells taken from?
taken from embryos from early stage of division
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where are adult stem cells found?
found in diferentiated tissues like bone or skin
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what do adult stem cells divide for?
to replace damaged cells
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what do plants have and where are they found?
have meristems found in rapid growing parts of plants tips of roots can divide to produce any kind of plant cell
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uses for emryonic stemm cells?3
replacing reparing brain cells for parkisons disease, replce damaged cells in the retina treat blindness, grwoing new tissues in lab for transplants and drug testing
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where are adult stem cells from?
from bone marrow
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what are adult stem cells used for?2
tretement of leukaemia and growing new tissues that genetically matched to patient
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advatages for embronic stem cells?2
easy to extract from embryo, produce any type cell
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disadvantages fro embryonic stem cells?1
have a right to live
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advatages for adult stem cells?2
no embryo destroyed, no rejection
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disavatantaged for adult stem cells?
produce only a few types of cells
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advatages of all stem cells?
replace faulty cells with healthycells
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risks for all stem cells?
may not stop diving cause cancer
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what two things make up the central nervous system?
brain and spinal chord
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where is the cerebal hemisphere?
in front
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what does the cerebal hemisphere control?4
voluntary movement, interpret ensory information, learning , memeory
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where is the medulla oblongata?
the line in the middle
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what does the medulla oblongata control?2
regulates heartbeat and breathing
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where is the cerebellum?
at the back
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what does the cerebellum control?
coordinates and controls precise and smooth mo ement
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what is given for a patient to a CT scan?
radioactive tracer allows different part of brain to show up
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what is CT?
computerised tomography
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what does a ct scan do?
takes different x-rays of brain from different angles
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what does the computer do?
puts images together gving a 3d image
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what is pet?
positron wmission tomography scan
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what is the patient given for a pet scan?
radioactive form of glucose
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where does the radiocactive glucose go?
trevels parts of body where respiratuion acoours rapidly
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what does it show?
shows hcanges in parrts of body to indicate that brain damaged or dieaseas
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what does the scanner detct and what does it do?
detcts radioactivity and builds image where the radioactive tracer is most concentrated
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why is it difficult to treat damage to brain and other parts of nerous system?
they are to well protected
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what is the brain protected by?
skull
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what is the spimal chord proctected by?
spine
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what is the blood-brain barrier?
thebrain capillaries that make medicince into the brain difficult to get
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what are neurones?
specialised cells
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what is the brain and spinal chord protected by to mke is hard to acsess fo surgery?
bone
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if a patient is paralysed what dpes this mean?
nerve impulses cannot pass
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what are stimulus detcted by?
sensory neurones
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what are neurons?
specialsied cells that carry nervous impulses
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how many types of nerones are there?
three
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what do sensory neurons do?
sensory neurons caryy impulses to the centraol nervous system
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what do motor neurones do?
carry impulses from the cns to effector organs
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where are relay neurons founs?
cns
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what does the dendron do?
carries impulses towards body cell
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what does the axon do?
carreis imulses away from body cell
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what does the fatty mayleine sheath do?
insulates the neurone
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in the mototr neurone what speeds up the rate of transmission?
the lectrical impulses jumping from one gap in myline sheath to next
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what does the nerve eneding do?
tramsnits the impulse to an efrfector(gland muslce)
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what are sensory neurones?
carry impulses from receptors to the cns
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what is a synapse?
point where two neurons meet
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as there is a small gap of which electrical impulses cannot pass what is the impulse carried by?
neirotransmitters
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what happens first at aynapse?
electrical nerve impulss reaches end of axon
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what happens next?
electrical impulses causes chemical neurotramsiters to be relaesed from vesicles in neurone to gap between neurons
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lastly what happens?
neurotramsnitter diffuses across the gap and fits into repectors casuing the electrical impulse in nect neirone
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what is a neuronetransmitter?
chemical released from one neuron which carries impulses across the synaptic gap to nect neuroen
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how many neurones is involv ed in the reflex arc?
three
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what is the order of the relfex arc?
sensory relay motor
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is the brain involves?
no only the spinal chord so it provides a fast response
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what are reflex arcs?4
immediate, involuntary, inate, invariable
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what is the eye?
a sensory receptor that detcts light and sends electical impulses along sensory neurons to the brain
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which hol does light enert through?
pupil
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what does the cronea and the lens do?
focuses light to form sharp image on the retina
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what does the retina conatin?2
conatin special receptors cells called rods and cones(detects light froms image)
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what does the nerves in the retina convert the image into?
electrical signals which are sent to the brain along the optic nerve
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if and object is far? 3
cillary muscles contarced , susoensory ligaments slack, shape of lens fat and round
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if object near,
cillary muscle relaxed, suspensory ligaments tight, shape of lens thin nad flattened
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what are cones sentititve to?
bright light and response to diffrent colors
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what are rod cells senistve to?
to low light and repsind only to how dark or light something is
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what is the isris?
ring of muscle that controls size of pupil
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what does it do?
circular muslces contracts pupil smaller bright light, radial muscle contract pupils longer let more ligth
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problems with eyes?4
color blindeness, long sightness short sightness, cataracts
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whatare cataratcs?
occurs when lens become scloudy so light cannot pass through
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what does a cataract create?
blurred image
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how can cataact be treated?
replacing cloudy lens with artificial one
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how many cones does a normal retina contain?
three detects red green blue ight
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what happens in color blindness?
one cone is missing or not working inherited
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what happens in red-green colour blindenes?
red or green cones missing so cannot distinguish between clouroys or red and green
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long sighted peopl focus on?
distanct objects not near ones
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how can long sightes be corrwtd and how?
converging lesn as it brings the rays of light together so liquid is focused on the retina
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what is shortsighetd focusing on?
close object not far ones
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how can it be corrected?
diverging lens as it maeks rays come tgther further away so light is focused on retina
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casue of short sight?2
eyeball to long, eye lens to powerful
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causes for long sigh?2
eyeball to short, eye lesne are not that powerful and lens does not bend enough
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causes for long sigh?2
eyeball to short, eye lesne are not that powerful and lens does not bend enough
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what is reproduction?
product of new individiuals
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how is sexual repruction?3
gametes mother father fuse, mixes genese from each parent, variety in characteristics
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advatanges is sexual reproduction ?1
genetically different so theres variation so if environment change some can survive
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disadvantages? 1
have to find a mate
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how is asexual reproduction?3
only one parent, no mixing gene info, offspring has same gene as parent
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advatages of sexual reproduction/?2
one parent, genetically identicle
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disadvantages of asexual reproduction?1
no variant can die if envirnment changes
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how is axexual reproduction achieveed ?
mitosis
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what is meiosis?
meiosis is a type of cell division that produces four daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes
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what does meiosis happen?
only in gametes cells
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what does meiosis produce?
genetically different haploid gametes
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what are the stages in meiosis?
parent cell diploid each chromosome copied then cell divides , parent cell divides into two and two again, daught cells gets one copy of chromosome from each pair
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what are the duaghter cells?
haploid cells
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what does meiosis produce?
meiosis results in variation
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how many cells does meosis and mitosis produce?
meisosis four, mitosis two
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what kind of daughter cells does meiosis and mitosis produce?
meiosis- genetically different , mitosis- identicle to parent cell
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what kind of cells meiosis and mitosis?
meiosis- haploid mitosis diploid
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where does meiosis and mitosis occur?
meiosis gametes and mitosis body cells
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what is a gene?
DNA is the genetic material found in the chromosomes in the nuclei of cells
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what is a gene?
short peice of dna that works for a specific protein
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what are the strans twisted in?
double helix
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what is each gene a length of?
dna
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what are the two strands of the double helix joined by?
pairs or bases
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what are the four bases?
Adenine Thymine Cytosine Guanine
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what do the bases form?
complemenatry pairs
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what do the bases pair up with?
A-T C-G
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what holds the DNA strands together?
weak hydrogen bonds between the base pairs
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what is the genome?
is the base sequence of all the dna in an organism
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what is a dna?
dna is a polymer made of many monomers called nucleotides joined together
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draw structure of dna
circle phosphate pentagon deoxribose sugar square base
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What is the first step to extract Dna from fruit?
grind fruit with sand using pestle and mortar to spearte cells
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2nd?
add detergent to break open membranes
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3rd?
add ice cold acohol so that the precipitates out
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how many stages are there in protein syntheis called?
2 stages - transcription and translation
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where does transcription take place?
in the nuceus
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what strand is moved from nucleus to cytoplams?
mRNA messenger
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where does translation take place?
cytoplasm where MRNA attaches to ribosome
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stage 1 of transcription?
section of dna unwounds and two strands separate
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stage 2?
enyme rna polymerase binds to non-coding dna in fron of gene
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stage3?
free complementary bases pair with open bases on one dn strand. then free nucleotides joined together by enzyme RNA polymerse to make a strand of co plemanrary mrna
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which bases pair up in transltion?
a=u c=g
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translation stage 1?
mrna attaches to ribosome . ribosome moves along mrna reading one triplet of bases (codon) at a time
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stage2?
trna molecules bring amino acids to robosome snd amino acid attaches to trna
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stage3?
complementary bases of Trna pair with bases mrna
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stage 4
amino acid are joined to make a polypeptide
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stage 5
tRNA free to collect another amino acid
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stage 6
the protein then fold to produce specifically shaped protein such as enzymes
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what is transcription
its when the DNA is copied by the mRNA
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what is translation
its when the bases translate to the amino acids
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what is a chromosome
a long strand of DNA
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what is formed when gametes fuse at fertilisation
a diploid zygote
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where are the chromosomes found
nucleus
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who many copies of chromosomes are in each body cell
two copies of each chromososmes
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what is a allele
an alternative form of a gene
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what is heterozygous
different alleles of the same gene
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what is a homozygous
a genes that has the same allele on both chromosomes
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what does the genotype show
it shows the alleles in the individual
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what is a phenotypes
its the characteristics that are produced
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how is monohybrid inheritance explained
genetic diagrams or punnett squares
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what does body cells contain
2 alleles from each gene
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what doesn't the genetic diagram and punnet square show
it show the possible offsprings not the actual offsprings
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what is cystic fibrosis caused by
its caused by a recessive allele
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how can pedigree analysis be used
to study inheritance or dominant and recessive alleles
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what can the family pedigrees be used for
to show inheritance of a genetic condition
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genotype for females
**
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genotypes for a male
XY
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phenotype blood group A
|a|a or |a|o
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blood group B
|b|b or |a|o
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blood group AB
|a|b
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blood group O
|o|o
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what is haemophilia
a sex link genetic disorder
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how does genetic variation happen
through mutation
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what are the two types of variation
genetic and environmental
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how is mutation or genetic variation created
if the sequence of bases change
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what can be cause by mutation
a large change of protein produced , small change of protein produced or no change in protein
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what is natural selection
when the environment selects which individuals pass on the alleles to the next gen
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Darwin's theory
overproduction-good genes will survives while bad genes die-good genes are passed on to offsprings to produce next gen
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what was the evidence for human evolution
change in skulls and stone tools
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how can stone tools be dated from their environment
the amount of radiation in the samples of sediments is compared to the sediment in different times
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what are the five kingdoms
plants, animals, fungi, protists, prokaryotes
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what are the two types of prokaryotes
eubacteria and archaea
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what is the pentadactyl limb
a five fingered limb
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what is selective breeding
when plants/animals are chosen depending on their characteristics
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what is it called when you manipulate genes
genetic engineering
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reasons for selective breeding
disease resistance, increase yield, better ability to cope with difficult conditions, faster growth, better flavour
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what is genetic engineering
changing the genes of an organism
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how is it done
by introducing genes from another to create a genetically modified organism
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GM crop plants new characteristics
resistances to insects attacks and herbicides
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what can be used for tissue culture
plants and animal tissue
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what does it mean
it means you can make many identical copies of a special organism
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how its done/ step 1
tissue sample cut from parent plant
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step 2
put in agar jelly
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step 3
samples will grow
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uses for animal cell culture
test the effects of drugs, check for cancer cells, produce important protiens
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uses for plant cell culture
to produce identical plants, to make plant products, to produce disease free plants
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how to make human insulin stage 1
DNA is cut out using enzymes called restriction enzymes, this makes staggered cuts across the double stranded DNA leaving a few unpaired bases called sticky ends
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stage 2
bacteria cells have circles of DNA called plasmids which is cut open by restriction enzymes leaving sticky ends
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stage . 3
the pieces of DNA containg the insulin gene are mixed with the plasmids , the sticky ends pair up and an enzyme called DNA ligase are added witch links back the DNA in a continuous circle
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stage 4
the plasmids are inserted into the bacteria which can now be grown in huge fermenter where human insulin are made
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what is a vector
the name for anything that brings a new gene into a cell
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what is the vector for insulin
plasmids
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how is Bt plants created. stage 1
the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis produce a chemical poisonous to insects called Bt toxin
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stage two
the gene for Bt toxin is cut out of the bacterial DNA and inserted into the DNA of a plant cell using Agrobacterium tumefaciens
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stage 3
plants grow from these cell produce Bt toxin which will kill the insects that tries to eat them
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2 types of diseases
communicable and non-communicable
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communicable is
a disease that can be past around
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non-communicable
a disease that can not be past around
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what is a pathogen
a organism that causes a infectious disease
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examples of communicable diseases
malaria, typhoid, cholera
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examples of non-communicable diseases
cancer, diabetes, heart disease
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what is released by bacteria to make us feel ill
they release a toxin
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what do viruses do
take over body cell which makes them release toxins
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what are fungi
they are eukaryotic organisms
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what are protist
they are eukaryotic organisms
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cholera
its a bacterium which causes watery, pale colour diarrhoea
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malaria
a protist that causes fevers, weakness, chills and sweating
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hiv
a virus that causes flu like symptoms and makes it easier for other pathogens to effect the body
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Card 2

Front

what is the cell that is dividing calles?

Back

cell that divides is called parent cell

Card 3

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how many cells does mitosis make?

Back

Preview of the front of card 3

Card 4

Front

what are the two cells called?

Back

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Card 5

Front

what are the stages of mitosis?

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