Biology Core Principles 1.1 - Biological Molecules

Developed from the resources provided by Peter Symonds College

There are lots of flashcards, just to ensure that everything is covered for any eventuality in the exams

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Name 3 Carbohydrate monomers
Glucose, Fructose, Galactose
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Name 3 Carbohydrate dimers
Multose, Lactose, Sucrose
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Name 3 Carbohydrate polymers
Glycogen, Starch, Cellulose, Chitin
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Define Monomer
A single subunit
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Define Dimer
Two subunits bonded together
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Define Polymer
Multiple subunits (more than 2) bonded together
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Name a Protein Monomer
Amino Acids (there are 20)
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What is the name for a Protein Dimer?
Dipeptide
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Give 3 examples of a Polypeptide
Haemoglobin, Collagen, Enzymes
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Can Lipids form polymers?
No, lipids are not monomers and therefore cannot form polymers
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Give an example of a Nucleic Acid Monomer
Nucleotide
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Give 3 examples of a Nucleic Acid Polymer
DNA, RNA (m, r, t), ATP
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Describe the general structure of a carbohydrate
Contains Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen; General Formula is C(H2O)n; Form simple (easily absorbed) and complex (slow release) molecules; Sugars are soluble, but starch is insoluble
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What is a Monosaccharide?
A simple sugar
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What is a Disaccharide?
A compound made up of two monosaccharides, condensed to remove H2O and form an oxygen glycosidic covalent bond between the two monosaccharides
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What is a Polysaccharide?
A compound made up of more than two monosaccharides, condensed to remove H2O and form an oxygen glycosidic covalent bond between the monosaccharides
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What are the uses of the general structures of a carbohydrate
Monosaccharide and Disaccharide forms are energy stores; Polysaccharide forms are for transportable and structural uses
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What does "-ose" mean?
The carbohydrate is a sweet, soluble sugar
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What is the difference between α glucose and β glucose?
Around Carbon 1, the Hydrogen in α glucose C1 is on top of the hydroxide group; in β glucose, the hydroxide group around C1 is on top of the hydrogen
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What are Proteins made up of?
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, and sometimes Sulphur
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What is the scientific name for the NH2 group in an Amino Acid?
Amino/Amine Group
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What is the scientific name for the COOH group in an Amino Acid?
Carboxylic Acid Group
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What is the scientific name for the "R" group in an Amino Acid?
The Functional group (can be 1 of 20)
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How do Amino Acids bond together?
They produce a condensation reaction, removing H2O (OH group from one of the COOH groups and one H from NH2 on the other Amino Acid), forming a Peptide Bond; the double bonded O stays on top of the C whilst the H flips under the N
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Is a Protein an Acid or an Alkali?
Every protein can act as an alkaline or an acid (COOH is acidic, NH2 is alkaline)
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What is a Polypeptide?
A chain of amino acids joined together by Peptide Bond (i.e. NH2-R1-R2-R3-R4-COOH)
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What structures can Polypeptides form?
Primary Structure (non-functional), Secondary Structure (structural protein (i.e. Keratin)), Tertiary Structure (metabolic protein (i.e. Enzymes, Antibiotics)), Quaternary Structure (structural or metabolic (i.e. Collagen or Haemoglobin))
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What is the Primary Structure?
The sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain; the addition/deletion/substitution of an Amino Acid can change the protein structure
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What is the Secondary Structure?
Hydrogen bonds (between Oδ- (from COOH) and Hδ+ (from NH2)) will form between certain Amino Acids, meaning that the Polypeptide Chains fold into an α helix or a β pleated sheet; Structural proteins
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What is the Tertiary Structure?
Forms a 3D Globular Protein; specific shape depends on the primary structure; four main bonds; Metabolic Proteins
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What are the four bonds in the Tertiary Structure?
[Weakest] Hydrogen Bonds (between Oδ- and Hδ+), Hydrophobic Interactions (hydrophobic R groups "hide" in the centre of the 3D Globular Protein), Ionic Bonds (between hydrophilic, charged R groups), [Strongest] Disulphide Bonds (Cysteine R groups)
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How do you test for Starch?
Iodine Test: Add iodine to the substance and shake (positive reaction is yellow to blue/black)
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How do you test for a Reducing Sugar? (All monosaccharides and disaccharides except Sucrose)
Benedict's Test: Add Benedict's solution, boil for 5 minutes, and shake (positive reaction is blue to (green to yellow to) brick red)
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How do you test for a Non-Reducing Sugar? (Includes Sucrose)
HCl and Benedict's Test: Add HCl (hydrolyses Sucrose to Glucose and Fructose), boil for 2 minutes, neutralise, add Benedict's Solution, boil for 5 minutes, and shake (positive reaction is blue to (green to yellow to) brick red)
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How do you test for Proteins? (Enzymes and Antibodies)
Biuret Test: Add Biuret Reagent and shake (positive reaction is blue to purple)
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How do you test for Lipids? (Oils and Fats)
Emulsion Test: Add ethanol (dissolves the lipid), shake, add water, and shake (positive reaction is colourless to cloudy)
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How do you identify the concentration of the sugar in a Reducing and Non-Reducing Sugar?
Low concentrations would result in a green colour, medium concentrations would result in a yellow/orange colour, and a high concentration would result in a brick red colour
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State the main functions of Carbohydrates in Humans
Source of Immediate Energy; Energy Store; Components for Structural Building
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State the scientific names of carbohydrates that have 3 Carbons, 5 Carbons, and 6 Carbons
Triose; Pentose; Hexose
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What is a Condensation Reaction?
The joining of smaller molecules to make larger molecules, releasing water and forming a Covalent Bond
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What is a Hydrolysis Reaction?
The breaking of bonds in larger molecules to separate them into smaller molecules, adding water and breaking the Covalent Bonds
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Why can Glucose (and Maltose) form a polymer, a chain of repeating units?
They are Monomers, and can form Covalent Bonds.
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What is the type of bond formed between the monomers which form Amylose?
1-4 Glycosidic Bond
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Why is Chitin an unusual Polysaccharide?
The OH group on C2 is replaced by an Acetyl Amide group (NHCOCH3); it is found in fungal cell walls, arthropod component, lower animal exoskeletons (i.e. insect, crab, shrimp shells)
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What element is found in Chitin but is not normally present in Carbohydrates?
Nitrogen
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Is Chitin formed using α or β glycosidic links?
β Glycosidic Links
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Why is Chitin so important to an insect's body structure?
Forms part of the exoskeleton; has an Acetyl Amide group added to form a mycopolysaccharide - this is strong, waterproof, and lightweight
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Explain how the arrangement of the Chitin gives strength to the exoskeleton
Straight chains of β Glucose; each β Glucose is rotated 180° to the next; many parallel chains are formed using crosslinks (Hydrogen bonds) to form microfibrils (exceptionally strong)
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How is the structure of cellulose similar to and different from Chitin?
Similar: 180° rotated β Glucose, both are polysaccharides, 1-4 glycosidic bonds, microfibrils; Differences: Chitin has an acetyl amide/Cellulose doesn't
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What type of Glyosidic Bond forms when the chains of Glucose branch?
1-6 Glyosidic Bond
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What is the main difference between Amylopectin and Glycogen?
Amylopectin is used for the storage of glucose in plants, Glycogen is used for the storage of glucose in animals.
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What two carbohydrate molecules are found in starch grains?
Amylose and Amylopectin
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Why are starch and glycogen good energy store molecules?
Easily hydrolysed; enzymes can be stored
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What type of glucose is used to make cellulose?
α Glucose
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How does Cellulose differ from Amylose?
Cellulose is made from long straight chains with crosslinks, Amylose is made of coiled chains
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Why is Cellulose a suitable material for plant cell walls?
Very strong; prevents it the cell wall from bursting when it is turgid
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Explain why a mistake leading to the insertion of the wrong Amino Acid during protein synthesis could produce an enzyme that doesn't function
Wrong shape active site; not the same tertiary bonds
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Why do enzymes no longer function if heated to a temperature of 80°C?
They denature; active site shape alters
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How do carrier molecules specifically recognise Glucose?
Because the carrier proteins recognise the specific shape of Glucose
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Describe the structure of Haemoglobin
4 polypeptide chains; Quaternary Structure; Haem Prosthetic Group forms part of or combines with a protein; Conjugated Protein functions in interaction with other chemical groups, attracted by Covalent Bonding; contains Fe Mineral Ions
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Describe the properties of Haemoglobin
Soluble in water; Specific 3D shape (3D Globular Protein)
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Describe the function of Haemoglobin
Transport oxygen from the lungs to the respiring tissues; carries small amount of CO2 away from the body (though this is usually done by the Blood Plasma)
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Describe the structure of Collagen
Triple left-handed helix; 3 polypeptide chains tightly wrapped around each other; crosslinks formed by Hydrogen Bonding; Fibrous Protein; Stable
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Describe the properties of Collagen
Insoluble in water, Strong and Tough
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Describe the function of Collagen
Gives strength to bones and tendons because it has multiple Hydrogen Bonds, meaning that crosslinks provide strength and stability.
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Haemoglobin + 4O2 = ?
Hb.4O2 (Oxyhaemoglobin)
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What is the difference in colours between the haemoglobin molecules?
Different Oxygen concentrations
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What conditions are needed to make haemoglobin separate from Oxygen?
Low surrounding Oxygen pressure; vaccum
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What is the centre of each polypeptide chain made of in a Collagen molecule?
Haem
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What type of Glucose makes up: Starch? Amylose? Amylopectin? Glycogen? Cellulose?
α Glucose (1-4 glycosidic bonds); α Glucose (1-4 glycosidic bonds); α Glucose (branches form between Carbons 1 and 6 of Adjacent α Glucose); α Glucose (1-4 glycosidic bonds); β Glucose (β - 1-4 glycosidic bonds)
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What type of shape is: Starch? Amylose? Amylopectin? Glycogen? Cellulose?
Coiled chains; Coiled Chains; Branched Polymer; Coiled Chains (however many side chains are attached to the coiled chains by 1-6 glycosidic bonds); Parallel chains joined by Hydrogen Bonds
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What is the structure of: Starch/Amylose? Amylopectin? Glycogen? Cellulose?
Compact, Insoluble, Long Chains; Compact, Insoluble, Branched Chains; Long Chains, Compact, Insoluble; Each glucose is rotated 180°, Hydrogen Bonds form crosslinks to form microfibrils
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What is the function of: Starch/Amylose? Amylopectin? Glycogen? Cellulose?
Glucose molecules can be easily broken off; doesn't reduce water potential of the cell; Glucose molecules can be easily broken off; doesn't reduce water potential of the cell; very strong and supports the cell wall
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What are the similarities between Starch and Cellulose?
1-4 glycosidic bonds, found in plants, insoluble, polysaccharides
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What are the differences between Starch (S) and Cellulose (C)?
S is made up of α Glucose/C is made up of β Glucose, S can be digested in humans/C can't, S is coiled/C is straight, S is branched/C isn't, S is storage/C is structural, S doesn't form Hydrogen Bonds and Microfibrils/C does
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Where are phospholipids found?
Plasma Membrane
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What is the structure of Phospholipids like?
Similar to triglycerides: contain a glycerol molecule and two fatty acids, the third fatty acid is replaced by a phosphate group.
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What is the difference between Low Density Lipoproteins (LDL) and High Density Lipoproteins (HDL)
LDL: Forms when diet is high in saturated fats, increase chance of getting an Atheroma; HDL: Polyunsaturated fats, combat LDLs.
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How does a Fatty Acid bond to Glycerol? (Draw a Diagram)
Condensation Reaction between H (from OH) on the Glycerol and the OH on the Fatty Acid (COOH-R). Glycerol + Fatty Acid = -3H2O + 3(Ester Bond) bonded to R to form a Triglyceride
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Describe properties of Saturated Fats
Immiscible in water, will dissolve in organic solvents (alcohol), only single Carbon Bonds throughout, usually animal fats, solid at room temperature
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Describe properties of Unsaturated Fats
Immiscible in water, will dissolve in organic solvents (alcohol), contain double bonds in the hydrocarbon chain, usually plant fats, liquid at room temperature
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What is the difference between Monounsaturated and Polyunsatured Fats?
Monounsaturated have one double Carbon bond, Polyunsatured have more than one double Carbon bond
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List the functions of Saturated Fats
Buoyancy; insulation to help maintain a constant body temperature; protection of vital organs
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List the functions of Unsaturated Fats
Gram per gram the lipids contain 2x as much energy as carbohydrates; Seeds contain lots of polyunsatured fats to aid in growth
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How many molecules would result from the complete digestion of one triglyceride molecule?
4 - Glycerol + 3 Fatty Acids
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Name the type of reaction which occurs in the digestion of a triglyceride molecule
Hydrolysis
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Name the bond that is broken during the digestion of a triglyceride
Ester Bond
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What do camels store in their humps?
Fat
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What are the main causes of heart disease?
Fatty deposits in the coronary arteries (Atheroma), High Blood Pressure (Hypertension)
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What are the four main factors that contribute to heart disease?
Diet high in saturated fats; Smoking; Lack of unsaturated fats; Alcohol
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What combines to make a lipoprotein?
Lipids and Proteins
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What are the two main substances that are restricted from accessing the heart if an Atheroma forms?
Glucose and Oxygen
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If the ratio of HDL:LDL is higher, what does this mean?
A lower risk of cardiovascular and coronary heart diease
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What is a polar molecule?
A molecule that has a different charge on either end, with the molecule being overall neutral
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What is a respiratory substrate?
Anything added to O2 in respiration
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C6H12O6 + 6O2 = ?
ATP + 6CO2 + 6H2O
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α Glucose + α Glucose = ?
Maltose
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α Glucose + Galactose = ?
Lactose
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α Glucose + Fructose = ?
Sucrose
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What effect has Amylase have on polysaccharides?
Breaks polysaccharides down into disaccharides or monosaccharides
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What is the function of the following in living organisms: Magnesium (Mg2+)? Iron (Fe2+)? Calcium (Ca2+)? Phosphate (PO4^(3-))?
Constituent of chlorophyll in leaves, needed for photosynthesis; component of Haemoglobin; strong bones and teeth, muscle contraction; formation of cell membrane, strong bones and teeth, constituent of ATP and Nucleic Acids
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Name the inorganic ion present in the Haem group of Haemoglobin
Iron (Fe2+)
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Why is Haemoglobin regarded as having a Quaternary Structure?
Combines with four polypeptide chains, such as the insulin chains or non-protein molecules in Tertiary Structure that combine.
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What are the features of water that makes it significant to living organisms?
Universal solvent - polar and ionic molecules dissolve/gases dissolve in water; water is a reactant in hydrolysis; cohesion; high latent heat of vaporisation; high specific heat capacity; ice is less dense than water; transparent
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Why are the features of water significant to animals? (Same order as listed on Card 104)
Transport of ions to required areas; breakdown carbohydrates; support and buoyancy to aquatic organisms; cooling the body due to high energy requirements to warm water; stable environment; insulating layer; Phytoplankon synthesise Vitamin D
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Why are the features of water significant to plants? (Same order as listed on Card 104)
Transport of ions to required areas; photosynthesis; strengthens Xylem; cooling due to high energy requirements to warm water; stable environment; stable environment; photosynthesis can occur
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Describe how R groups can interact to determine the Tertiary Structure of a protein
Some R groups attract/repel; ionic bonds can form between hydrophilic/charged R groups; disulphide bonds can form; hydrophilic R groups on the outside of the structure and hydrophiblic R groups inside
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Name one chemical element found in all Amino Acids, but not in Monosaccharides
Nitrogen
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What type of chemical reaction occurs to form a dipeptide?
Condensation
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Collagen is found in the ligaments which hold bones together at joints. State two properties of collagen that make it suitable for this purpose.
Strong (high tensile strength); insoluble; flexible
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Explain the difference between the terms triglyceride and phospholipid
Phospholipid replaces a Fatty Acid; triglycerides bond through an Ester Bond whereas a phospholipid forms a phosphate-Carbon bond.
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Explain the difference between the terms saturated and unsaturated
Saturated has a fatty acid with maximum Hydrogen Bonds and no Double Carbon Bonds, whereas unsaturated fats removes some of the Hydrogen bonds for a Double Carbon Bond.
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Other cards in this set

Card 2

Front

Name 3 Carbohydrate dimers

Back

Multose, Lactose, Sucrose

Card 3

Front

Name 3 Carbohydrate polymers

Back

Preview of the front of card 3

Card 4

Front

Define Monomer

Back

Preview of the front of card 4

Card 5

Front

Define Dimer

Back

Preview of the front of card 5
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