BIOLOGY

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why do you need carbohydrates?
to release energy
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why do you need fats?
to keep you warm and release enrgy
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why do you need protein?
for growth, cell repair and cell replacement
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why do you need fibre?
to keep your digestive system running smoothly
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why do you need vitamins and minerals?
to keep your skin, bones and blood healthy
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what are the chemical reactions in your body that keep you alive called?
your metabolism
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why are bigger people more likely to have a higher metabolic rate than smaller people?
the bigger you are, the more energy your body needs because you have more cells
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what health problems can arise because of obesity?
arthritis, type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure and heart disease
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what can you do to loose weight?
take in less energy than you use --eat less fat or carbs(take in less energy)---do more exercise (use more energy)
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what are the two main types of pathogen?
bacteria and virus
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what is a bacteria and how does it make you feel ill?
bacteria are very small living cells. they make you feel ill by a) damaging your cells b) producing toxins
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what is a virus and how do they make you feel ill?
viruses are not cells they are tiny. they make you feel ill by invading your cells and using your cells machinery to replicate themselves which eventually cause the cell to burst.
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what are three parts of the bodies defence system?
hair, mucus and skin
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how does the body defend itself from microorganisms when you get cut?
small fragments of cells called 'platelets' help blood clot quickly to seal wounds.
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what three steps do white blood cells do against microbes?
1) consuming them & engulfing 2) producing antibodies when detecting foreign antigens 3) producing antitoxins
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what is the process of vacinations?
injecting dead or inactive microorganisms which carry antigens. This causes your body to create antibodies to attack them
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pros of vaccination?
control infectious disease and big outbreaks of disease can be prevented if a large percentage of the population is vaccinated
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cons of vaccination?
cont always work and can give you a bad reaction
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what can happen if a bacteria mutate?
mutations can cause a bacteria to become resistant to an antibiotic
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how can you test the action of antibiotics?
by growing them in s culture medium e.g Agar jelly
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why must the inoculating hoops be sterilised?
because if it the equipment is not sterilised then unwanted microorganisms will grow in the culture medium and affect the result
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In a school what temp would the medium be kept at to prevent harmful pathogens?
25 degrees
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what did Ignaz semmelweis do?
he cut deaths by using antiseptics and got doctors to wash their hands in an antiseptic solution because people were dying in hospitals.
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why are bacteria becoming more resistant?
because of the overuse of antibiotics
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what are some dangers of bacteria?
can mutate to produce new strains, new strain could be antibiotic resistant ...
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what are some dangers of virus?
mutate often, makes it hard to develop vaccines because the DNA can lead to them having different antigens
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what is a stimulus?
a change in your enviroment
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what are the sense organs?
eyes, tongue, skin, eyes, ears
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what are receptors?
a group of cells which are sensitive to a stimulus , they change stimulus energy to electrical impulses
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what do sensory neurons do?
nerve cells that carry signals as electrical impulses from the receptors in the sense organs to the central nervous system
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what do relay neurons do?
nerve cells that carry signals from sensory neurons to motor neurones
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what do motor neurons do?
nerve cells that carry signals from the central nervous system to the effector (muscles or glands)
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what does the central nervous system consist of?
brain and spinal cord
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what do neurons do?
transmit the information as electrical impulses quickly to and from the central nervous system
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what is synapse?
the connection between two neurons
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how to synapses work?
the nerve signal is transferred by chemicals which diffuse across the gap. these chemicals then set off a new electrical signal in the next neuron.
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what are reflexes?
automatic responses to certain stimuli- reduce chance of injury
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what is the 1st stage of the reflex arc?
1) when a stimulus detected by receptors impulses are sent along a sensory neurone to the CNS.
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what is the 2nd stage of the reflex arc?
when the impulses reach the synapse between the sensory neurone and the relay neurone, they trigger the chemicals to be released. These chemicals cause impulses to be sent along the relay neurone.
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what is the 3rd stage of the reflex arc?
when impulses reach a synapse between the relay neurone and the motor neurone, chemicals are released and cause impulses to be sent along the motor neurone
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what is the 4th stage of the reflex arc?
the impulses then travel along the motor neurone to the effector(e.g muscle)
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what is the 5th stage of the reflex arc?
the muscle contracts and you move your hand
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what are hormones?
chemical messengers which travel in the blood to activate target cells-carried in blood plasma
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what are the cells that are affected and activated by hormones called?
target cells
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where are hormones produced?
glands
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what is the difference between nerves and hormones?
nerves---fast, act for a short time, precise area ****** hormones---slower, act for a long time, act in a general area
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what is stage 1 of the menstrual cycle?
lining of the uterus breaks down
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what is stage 2 of the menstrual cycle?
lining of the uterus builds up
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what is the stage 3 of the menstrual cycle?
an egg is released
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what is stage 4 of the menstrual cycle?
the lining of the uterus is maintained
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what are the properties of FSH?
1) produced by the pituitary gland 2) causes egg to mature in the ovaries 3)stimulates the ovaries to produce oestrogen
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what are the properties of Oestrogen?
1) produced in the ovaries 2) causes pituitary gland to produce LH 3) stops release of FSH
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what are the properties of LH?
1) produced of the pituitary gland 2) stimulates the release of an egg
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what hormone can be used for contraception?
oestrogen
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why is oestrogen useful for this?
it stops production of FSH and after a while egg development and production stop
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why is progesterone also useful for this?
it stimulates the production of thick cervical mucus which stops any sperm getting through
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why did the first pill made in 1950's create concerns?
there was high levels of oestrogen which caused blood clots
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how have they improved this problem?
the pill now has lower doses of oestrogen
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what are the pros of the pill?
99% effective and reduces risk of cancer
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what are the cons of the pill?
is not 100% effective, side effects like nausea, doesn't protect against STD's
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what are two ways to increase fertility?
IVF and being injected with FSH and LH
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what are cons of IVF?
you can have a strong reaction e.g vomiting and increases the risk of cancer
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what is the plant growth hormone called?
auxin
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what three things does auxin respond to? (scientific names too please)
light (phototropism), gravity (gravitropism), and moisture
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how does auxin work in shoots? (towards light)
when a shoot tip is exposed to light , more auxin accumulates on the side in the shade. this makes the cell grow faster on the shaded sideof the shoot bends towards the light
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how does auxin work in shoots? (away from gravity)
when shoot is sideways, gravity produces an uneven distribution of auxin so more auxin grow on the lower side. lower side grows faster bending shoot up
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how does auxin work in roots? (towards gravity)
root growing sideways, more auxin on lower side. but in a root extra auxin stops growth. cells on top grow faster and root bends down
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how does auxin work in roots? (towards moisture)
an uneven amount of moisture in root will make auxin go on side with more moisture. this stops growth on that side causing root to grow towards moisture
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what are the bodily levels that need to be controlled?
ion content, sugar content, water content, temperature
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what are the three ways water is lost from the body?
skin as sweat, lungs as breath, urine
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what would your sweat and urine levels be like on a cold day ?
dont sweat and pale urine
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what would your sweat and urine levels be like on a hot day?
sweat a lot, more concentrated urine, loose more water
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what are the three types of drugs?
medicinal, performance,enhancing and recreational
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what is an example of a medicinal drug?
morphine
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what is an example of performance-enhancing drug?
anabolic steroids
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what is an example of recreational drugs?
cocaine
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what are some ethical arguments with performance-enhancing problems?
against--unfair because you have an advantage & health risks For--own decision & drug-free sports are not fair
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what are statins?
prescribed drugs used to lower the risk of heart disease
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there are 3 main stages in drug testing.. what is the first stage?
drugs tested on human cells and tissues
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what is the second stage..?
drugs tested on live animals to see if drug works , toxicity & dosage
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what is the third stage..?
if passes animal test it is tested on humans in clinical trial
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what is an optimum dose?
the dose that is most effective and has the fewest side effects
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what drug was developed for morning sickness and sleeping pill in 1950's?
thalidomide
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what are the effects of smoking?
causes heart, blood vessel and lung disease, cancer and is addictive
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what is are the effects of alcohol?
effects the nervous system, lead to impaired thinking, causes liver disease
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how are desert animals adapted to keep cool?
large surface area compared to volume, efficient with water, good in hot conditions (think skin layer), camoflauge
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how are arctic animals adapted to reduce heat loss?
small surface area compared to volume, well insulated, camouflage
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what are the living factors cause environmental changes?
infectious diseases, predators, food sources, competitors
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what are the non-living factors that cause environmental changes?
temperature, rainfall and air or water pollution
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how can environmental changes affect animals and plants?
population size increases, population size decreases, population distribution changes
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how can environmental changes be measured?
using living indicators
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what indicators be used to measure air pollution and why?
lichen because they are sensitive to the concentration of sulphur dioxide(lots of lichen=clean air)
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what indicators can be used to measure water pollution and why?
mayfly larvae because they are sensitive to the concentration of dissolved oxygen,(lots of mayfly=clean water)
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what are non living indicators that can measure environmental change?
satellites to measure the temperature of sea surface, automatic weather stations tell us atmospheric temperature, rainfall using rain gauges
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how is energy lost during biomass?
it is lost as heat to the surroundings and part of the animal is inedible(bone)
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what conditions do microorganisms work best at?
warm and moist
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what is the whole carbon cycle powered by?
photosynthesis
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what is the 1st stage?
carbon dioxide is removed from atmosphere by plants and algae, carbon is used to make carbs, protein and fats
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what is the 2nd stage?
some carbon is returned to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide when plants respire. some of carbon becomes fats and proteins in animals when the animals eat the plants
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what is the 3rd stage?
some carbon is returned to atmosphere when animals respire
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what is 4th stage?
when plants and animals die, detritus feeders and microorganisms feed on their remains. when these organisms respire carbon dioxide is returned to the atmosphere
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what is the 5th stage?
animals also produce waste, broken down by detritus feeders and microorganisms. compounds from waste taken up from soil by plants as nutrients-back in the food chain
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whats is the 6th stage?
useful plants and animals products e.g wood and fossil fuels are burnt (combustion). this releases carbon dioxide in the air ---CARBON IS CONSTANTLY BEING CYCLED!!
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organisms of the same species have differences. what are these differences called?
variation within a species
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what are the two type of variation?
genetic variation & environmental variation
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how are an organisms characteristics determined?
by the genes inherited from their parents
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what are genes?
the codes inside your cells that control how your made-short length of the chromosome
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what are sex cells called?
gametes
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what does your nucleus contain?
genetic material in the form of chromosomes
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how many pairs of chromosomes does the human nucleas have?
23 pairs
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what do genes do?
control development of different characteristics e.g hair colour
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what are different versions of the same gene called?
alleles
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what is sexual reproduction?
sexual reproduction involves the fusion of male and female gametes. because there TWO parents and the offspring contain a mixture of their parents genes' (genetically different)
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what causes variation?
the mixture of genetic material
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what is asexual reproduction?
when there is only ONE parent. there's no fusion of gametes, no mixing of chromosomes and no genetic variation between parent and offspring. offspring are genetically identical to parent (CLONE)
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what are the two ways of cloning?
cutting and tissue culture
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what is cutting?
taking cuttings from good parent plants and planting them to produce genetically identical copies (clones)
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what are the advantages of cutting?
can be produced quickly & cheaply
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what is tissue culture?
where a few plant cells are put in a growth medium with hormones and they grow into new plants-clones
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what are the advantages of tissue culture?
made very quickly, in little space and can be grown all year
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how do farmers make animal clones?
embryo transplants
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what happens during embryo transplants?
sperm cells are taken from egg cells from cow. sperm are used to artificially fertilise an egg cell. the embryo that develops is then split(forms clones) The cloned embryos are implanted into other cows where they grow into baby calves
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what is adult cloning?
involves taking an unfertilised egg cell and removing its genetic material. a complete set of chromosomes from an adult body cell is inserted into the empty egg. The egg is then stimulated by en electric shock which makes it divide. embryo->female
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what are two issues of cloning?
reduced gene pool & population too closely related
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what is genetic engineering?
using enzymes to cut and paste genes
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how is genetic engineering done?
a useful gene is cut from organisms chromosomes using enzymes, enzymes are then used to cut another organisms chromosome and then to insert the useful gene.
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what is an example of genetic engineering?
the human insulin gene can be inserted into bacteria to produce human insulin
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what are genetically modified crops?
crops that have had their genes modified to make them resistant to viruses, insects or herbicides
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what are pros to genetically modified crops?
can increase the yield and can provide nutrients in nations that lack nutrients
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what are cons to genetically modified crops?
reduce farmland biodiversity and might not be safe
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what is the theory of evolution?
more than 3 million years ago life on earth began as as simple organisms from which all the more complex organisms evolved
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what was charles darwins explanation of evolution?
natural selection
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what is natural selection?
species show variation because of the differences in their genes. But individuals with characteristic that make them better adapted to the environment have a better chance of survival-breed-successful. useful genes-passed on to next generation
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what is a mutation?
a change in an organisms DNA
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Darwin's idea was controversial? give three reasons why?
1) went against religious beliefs 2) Darwin couldn't give a good explanation for why these useful characteristics appeared 3) there wasn't enough evidence
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what was Lamarck's hypothesis?
that if a characteristic was used a lot then it would become more developed e.g rabbit running a lot-legs getting longer)
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why was Lamarck's idea rejected?
experiments didn't support his hypothesis
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