Biological molecules

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what is a hydrogen bond?
this is the bond between water molecules. a hydrogen bond is weaker than covalent bonds and this helps to stabilise the structure of the molecules
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what is a condensation reaction?
two molecules join by removing a molecule of water
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what is a hydrolysis reaction
two molecules separate by adding a water molecule
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what are the six main properties of water?
1. liquid 2. low density 3. good solvent 4. cohesion and surface tension 5. high specific heat capacity 6. high latent heat of vaporisation
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what four things can liquid water do?
1. provide habitats for animals that live in river 2. form a major component of tissues in living organisms 3. provide a reaction medium for chemical reactions 4. provides a transport medium
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what two things does waters density affect?
1. aquatic organisms have somewhere to live in winter 2. ponds are insulated by extreme cold
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why is water such a good solvent?
1. molecules and ions can move around and react in water 2. molecules and ions can be transported around living things whilst dissolved in water
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how does cohesion and surface tension affect water?
when there is a drop of water, hydrogen bonding pulls them together. water molecules are more attracted to the water molecules below them so they contract
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how does high specific capacity affect the properties of water?
a lot of energy is required to increase their kinetic energy and temperature due to their hydrogen bonds. this means aquatic animals have a stable place to live
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how does high latent heat of vaporisation affect the properties of water
energy is required to break hydrogen bonds. when this water evaporates, it cools animals down. this is useful for organisms in hot places
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What is a macromolecule?
a large molecule that may or may not be a polymer
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what is a polymer?
a large molecule formed form many monomers
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what is a monosaccharide?
simple sugar that is soluble in water that acts as a store and source of energy
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what is a disaccharide?
sweet sugar, there are two types; reducing and non-reducing sugar
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what is alpha glucose?
the hydroxyl groups are both on the same side
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what is beta glucose?
the hydroxyl groups are on opposite sides
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what makes maltose
alpha glucose + alpha glucose
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what makes sucrose
alpha glucose and fructose
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what makes lactose?
beta galactose + alpha glucose
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what makes cellobiose
beta glucose+ beta glucose
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what happens when two glucose monomers join together?
a condensation reaction that results in a glycosidic bond
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how does a disaccharide break apart?
hydrolysis breaks the disaccharides by the addition of water. the water provides a -OH and a -H group
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what is a polysaccharide?
many monosaccharides bonded together.
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what are the two types of polysaccharide
homopolysaccharide and heteropolysaccharide
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what is a homopolysaccharide?
made up of one type of monomer
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what is a heteropolysaccharide?>
made up of more than one type of monomer
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what is amylose
long chains of alpha-glucose with1-4 glycosidic bonds in a dense helix shape
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what is amylopectin?
glucose with 1.,4 and 1,6 glycosidic bonds with a branch shape
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what is the structure of glycogen?
1,4 and 1,6 glycosidic bonds with more bonds so is more dense and compact
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what is the energy store in animals?
glycogen
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what is the energy store in plants>
starch
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what are the two types of starch?
amylopectin and amylose
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why are polysaccharides such good stores of energy?
1. glycogen and starch are compact 2. glucose is held in chains so the glucose can be snipped off for respiration 3. branched chains gives many glucose chains for respiration 4. less soluble in water so they do not disturb the conc of the cytoplasm
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why is cellulose a good structural unit?
the beta glucose molecules are alternating to stay straight, there are hydrogen bonds between the layers of beta glucose
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what is a microfibril?
60 beta glucose chains
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what is a macrofibril?
when microfibrils form together they form plant cell walls
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why is cellulose good for cell walls
1. microfibrils have a high tensile strength because of the glycodicic bonds and the hydrogen bonds between chains 2. macrofibrils run in all directions this increases the strength of the walls 3. very hard to digest becauseof glycosidic bonds
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what four things help a cell wall to do its job?
1. each cell needs the strength to support the whole plant 2. there is space between the microfibrils for water to pass through so the cell is fully permeable 3. has high tensile strength to prevent bursting 4. the microfibril can be reinforced
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what is the bacteria cell wall made of?
peptidoglycan with polysaccharide chains that lie in parallel
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what is the exoskeleton of insects made of
chitin
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what are the three types of lipids?
triglycerides, phospohlipds and steroids
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what is a triglyceride made up of
glycerol and fatty acids
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what is glycerol made up of?
3 carbon atoms with free -OH groups
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what is a fatty acid made up of?
they have carboxyl groups
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what is a unsaturated fatty acid?
there is at least one double C=C bond
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how do double C=C bonds affect the fatty acid chain?
the double bond makes kinks in the chain, resulting in them more fluid
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what happens when a fatty acid and a glycerol join?
a condensation reaction occurs between the carboxyl group on the fatty acid and the hydroxyl group on the glycerol
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what is the name of the bond between a fatty acid and glycerol?
an ester bond
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what are the five functions of triglycerides?
1. energy source 3. energy store 3. insulation 4. buoyancy 5. protection
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what is the structure of phospholipids
phospholipids have a phosphate group that replaces one of the fatty acid chains
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how do phospholipids behave in water?
the phosphate groups are polar and the fatty acids tails are non-polar. this means that the molecule is empathic
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what is a micelle?
this is when the fatty acid tails fold inside and the phosphate heads are in the water
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what is cholesterols?
this is a steroid alcohol
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what is a protein made of?
amino acids
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what three things give proteins their main function?
1. they form structural components of animals (muscles are protein) 2. they can adopt specific shapes to form enzymes 3. membranes can act as carriers and channels for active transport
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what is the structure of amino acids?
contains an amine group and a carboxyl group
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what happens when two amino acids bond together?
this is a condensation reaction to form a peptide bond.
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what is the primary structure of the amino acids?
this is the sequence of amino acids
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what is the secondary structure of amino acids?
you can get an alpha-helix or a beta pleated sheet
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what is the tertiary structure of the amino acid?
this is where the secondary structure folds to form a 3d shape that is held by bonds between amino acids§
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what is the quaternary structure of the amino acids?
many polypeptide chains arranged together
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what are the four types of protein bonding?
1. hydrogen bonds 2. ionic bonds 3. disulphide links 4. hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions
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what is the strongest type of protein bonding?
disulphide links because they have hydrogen bonding
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what is a fibrous protein?
an insoluble protein that is tough
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what are the three types of fibrous proteins?
collagen, keratin and elastin
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what are four functions of collagen?
1. a layer of collagen in the arteries prevents the artery from bursting 2, tendons are made of collagen 3. bones are made from collagen 4, cartilage is made of collagen
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what is the main function of collagen?
to provide mechanical strength
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what is the main function of keratin?
made disulphide bonds to keep strong
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what are the four main functions of keratin?
1. found in hair nails and horns 2. provides mechanical protection 3. waterproof 4. keratin prevents water-borne entry of pollutants
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what is the main function of elastin?
can stretch and recoil
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what are the three main functions of elastin>
1.skin can stretch around our bones 2. elastin in our lungs allows them to inflate and deflate 3, elastic's helps our blood vessels to stretch and recoil as blood is pumped
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what is a globular protein?
a soluble protein that has a very specific shape
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what are the three main globular proteins?
haemoglobin, insulin and pepsin
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what is a prosthetic group?
a group that is essential but not made of amino acids
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what is the quaternary structure of haemoglobin?
made up of four polypeptides. 2 alpha globin and two beta globin,
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what is the haem group on haemoglobin?
fe
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what is a conjugated protein?
proteins with prosthetic groups
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what is the function of haemoglobin?
transports carbon dioxide and oxygen
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what is the structure of insulin?
two polypeptide chains. 2 alpha helices and 2 beta pleated sheets
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what is the function of insulin?
increases uptake of glucose into the blood
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what is the structure of pepsin
many acidic R groups. held by hydrogen bonds and disulphide bridges
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what is the function of pepsin
digests proteins in the stomach
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what are the two types of modelling protein structure?
ab initio and comparative protein modelling
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how does calcium affect organisms?
1. increases rigidity of bones 2. activator of several enzymes 3. stimulates muscle contractions
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how does sodium affect organisms?
1. affects absorption of carbohydrates 2. contributes to muscle contractions 3, helps vacuole maintain turgidity
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how does potassium affect organisms?
1.generates healthy leaves 2. helps synthesis of glycogen 3. helps active transport of material in cell membrane
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how does hydrogen affect organisms?
1. involved in photosynthesis and respiration 2, involved in regulation of pH 3. helps transport of oxygen
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how does ammonium affect organism?
1. component of amino acids 2. essential for amino acids 3. maintains pH in human body
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how does nitrate affects organisms?
1. a component of amino acids 2. essential for nucleic acids 3.,component of nitrogen cycle
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how does hydrogen carbonate affect organisms?
1. regulates ph in blood 2. helps transport carbon dioxide into and out of the blood
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Card 2

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what is a condensation reaction?

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two molecules join by removing a molecule of water

Card 3

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what is a hydrolysis reaction

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Card 4

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what are the six main properties of water?

Back

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Card 5

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what four things can liquid water do?

Back

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