Biolgy B2B

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Proteins
ENZYMES -- Protein molecules are made up of long chains of amino acids. • These chains are folded into a specific shape so other molecules can fit into the protein.
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Uses of proteins
Hormones, antibodies, catalysts, structural components of tissues e.g. muscles
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Enzymes
shape of an enzyme is specific to its function, the shape fits onto the substance involved in the reaction (substrate). •High temps change the shape of an enzyme (this is when enzymes are denatured)Different enzymes work best at diff pH values
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Enzymes in digestion
Some enzymes work outside body cells.Digestive enzymes are produced by specialised cells in glands in the lining of the gut. enzymes pass out of cells into gut, where they come into contact with food molecules. • catalyse breakdown of large-small mol
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amylase
produces in salivary glands pancreas and small intestine // catalyses breakdown of starch into sugars in mouth and small intestine
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HCL
• The stomach also produces hydrochloric acid, the enzymes in the stomach work best is acidic conditions
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Bile
• The liver produces bile, it is stored in the call bladder and released into the small intestine. • Bile neutralises the acid added to food in the stomach. • Bile provides alkaline conditions which the enzymes in the small intestine work best in.
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enzymes in the home
• Biological detergents contain lipase and protease to break down food stains for example. • Biological detergents are more effective at lower temperatures than other detergents.
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advantages of enzymes in the home
efficient at removing stains // lower temps can be used which saves energy
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drawbacks of enzymes in home
leads to irritation and allergies, protease may remain in clothes which digests protein in skin
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enzymes in industry
• Protease ‘pre-digests’ proteins in baby foods. • Starch is converted to sugar syrup by carbohydrases. • Glucose syrup is converted to fructose syrup by isomerase, fructose syrup is sweeter in smaller amounts and therefore is used in slimming produc
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benefits of enzymes in industry
lower temps - saves money and energy // when enzymes use industrial processes cheaper
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drawbacks of enzymes in industry
enzymes are sensitive to temp and pH changes. Temp and pH must be carefully controlled which is expensive
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Aerobic respiration
• Chemical reactions inside the body are controlled by enzymes. • Aerobic respiration happens continually in plants and animals. • Most reactions in aerobic respiration take place in mitochondria
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aerobic respiration equation
Oxygen + glucose → carbon dioxide + water (+ energy)
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how energy is used
build larger molecules from smaller ones. •In animals, muscles to contract (movement) •In mammals and birds,maintain a steady body temp. in cold surroundings. • In plants, to build up sugars, nitrates and other nutrients into aminoacid=proteins
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Exercise
depth and rate of breathing increases. Heart rate increases. changes increase supply of blood flow to the muscles of sugars and oxygen, and increase the removal of carbon dioxide. • Muscles store glucose as glycogen, converted back later use
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aerobic respiration equation
Glucose → lactic acid + energy
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anaerobic respiration [3]
insufficient amounts of oxygen reaching muscles during exercise, anaerobic respiration is used to obtain energy. • Less energy is released in anaerobic respiration because there is an incomplete breakdown of glucose. Oxygen debt, needs to be repaid
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Muscles in anaerobic respiration
• Muscles become fatigued (stop contracting efficiently) if they are subject to vigorous amounts of activity. • One cause of muscle fatigue is a build-up of lactic acid. • Lactic acid is removed by blood flowing through the muscle
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Menedels discoveries
noticed that certain characteristics that were shown by 2 pea plants were not always shown in their offspring. when he crossed these offspring together, the characteristics sometimes reappeared in the next generation. found there was a predictpatter
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Mendels proposition
• Each individual inherits a set of factors from each of their parents. • It is the combination of these characters that determines the characteristics of an individual.
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why was his discoveries not recognised till after death
• He published his work in an obscure journal • DNA, chromosomes and genes were not yet discovered • People could not accept the link between plants and humans.
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Cell division - mitosis and why it happens
• Copies of the genetic material are made. • The cell divides once to form 2 genetically identical body cells. Why mitosis happens: • To replace damaged cells. •For growth.
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Meiosis
testes and ovaries – divide to form gametes. • The type of cell division in which a cell divides to form gametes is meiosis. •Copies of the genetic material are made.cell divides twice to form four gametes with a single set of chromosomes.
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Fertilisation
• When gametes join at fertilisation, a single body cell with new pairs of chromosomes is formed. • A new individual then develops with this cell dividing repeatedly by mitosis.
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Stem cells
• Stem cells are cells which can differentiate into different types of cells. • Stem cells can be found in adult bone marrow and human embryos. • Human stem cells have the ability to become any kind of human cell
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how can stem cells be used
• Nerve cells – to help those paralysed by spinal cord injuries. • Beating heart muscle cells – for those with heart disease - Insulin producing cells – for those with diabetes
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For stem cells
Those suffering are more important than embryo // unwanted embryos otherwise destroyed could be sued for research
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against stem cells
killing potential human life // scientists should concentrate in other ways of obtaining stem cells rather than using them from embryos
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Asexual reproduction
Offspring produced by asexual reproduction are produced by mitosis of the parental cells. • They contain the same alleles as the parent (genetically identical
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Genetic variation
Variation occurs in sexual reproduction because when gametes fuse, one of each pair of alleles comes from each parent. • In human body cells, one of the 23 pairs of matched chromosomes are different and carries the gene that determines the sex.
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Gender
**= FEMALE // XY=MALE
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Alleles and genes
allele = version of a gene.• Each gene codes for a combination of amino acids to make a specific protein. • A gene is a section of DNA.
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DNA
DNA stands for deoxyribo nucleic acid. • Chromosomes are made up of DNA. • DNA has a double helix structure. • Each person has unique DNA (apart from identical twins). • This can be used to identify individuals, this is called DNA fingerprintin
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polydactyly
• This is where an individual has extra fingers or toes. • It is dominant, so can be passed on by only one parent who has the disorder
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cystic fibrosis
• It is a disorder of the cell membranes. • It must be inherited from both parents to be shown as it is recessive. • You can be a carrier without having the disorder.
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for embryo screening
stop people suffering, laws stop it going too far, treating disorders cost gov lots of money, most embryos are normally destroyed
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against embryo screening
screening is expensive, designer babies, implies people w disorders a re undesirable and rejected embryos destroyed
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Fossils
• Evidence of early life forms comes from fossils. • Fossils are the remains of organisms from many years ago, which are found in rocks. • We can learn from fossils how much or how little organisms have changed since life developed on earth.
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PROBLEMS WITH FOSSILS
• Many early life forms were soft bodied, and therefore left few traces behind. • What traces were left behind have mainly been destroyed by geological activity • Scientists can’t be sure about how life began BC lack of valid and reliable evidence
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how fossils are formed
From hard parts that do not decay easily//Cpmditions for decay are missing so organism doesn't decay//when parts of organism is replaced by other materials as they decay// preserved traces of organisms e.g. footprints
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Extinction caused
• New predators. • New, more successful competition. • Change in environment over geological time. • Single catastrophic event e.g volcanos, asteroids. • New diseases. • A new species develops (speciation
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Speciation
development of new species. • A species is a group of similar organisms which can reproduce to give fertile offspring. • Speciation occurs when populations of the same species become so different that they can no longer breed to prod fertile offsprin
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Stages of speciation
Isolation - 2 pops separated geographically // GENETIC VARIATION - Wide range of alleles / /NATURAL SELECTION - Beneficial characters to help organism survived are passed on to next gen // SPECIATION - Pops so different successful interbreeding inpos
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Other cards in this set

Card 2

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Uses of proteins

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Hormones, antibodies, catalysts, structural components of tissues e.g. muscles

Card 3

Front

Enzymes

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Card 4

Front

Enzymes in digestion

Back

Preview of the front of card 4

Card 5

Front

amylase

Back

Preview of the front of card 5
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