Bio-psychology

CNS

Consists of the brain and spinal cords, and is the control centre for mental and physical activities of the body. Communications in the CNS is carried out by chemical messengers known as neurotransmitters that pass messages between nerve cells

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PNS

The peripheral nervous system is the complex network made up of all the nerves outside of the brain and spinal cord. It sends informations to the brain about the organs, limbs and skin

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What is the PNS divided into?

It is divided into the somatic nervous system, which deals with sensory information and movement, and the autonomic nervous system, which regulates involuntary functions.

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Autonomic nervous system

Regulates responses which we do not notice, for example dilating blood vessels. It is part of the PNS and it also controls muscles in the body, regulating the functions of our internal organs

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Somatic nervous system

We are in control of this system and we use it when we want to make our muscles move. It controls the movement of our limbs. It is part of the PNS which connects the brain to the motor neurons such as those found in skeletal muscles

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Process of touching a hot plate

Hot plate detected by receptors, connected to a sensory neuron. Receptors detect a change in temp triggering electrical impulse in spinal cord. Neurotransmitters are released as signal can't cross synapse. Relay neuron triggers impulse to motor.

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Neuron

basic building blocks of the nervous system, they are nerve cells that process and transmit messages through electrical and chemical signals

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Sensory neuron

carry messages from the PNS to the CNA. They have long dendrites and short axons

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Relay neuron

connect the sensory neurons to the motor or other relay neurons. They have short dendrites and short axons

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Motor neuron

Connect the CNS to effectors such as muscles and glands. They have short dendrites and long axons

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Structure of a neurone

The cell body includes a nucleus, branch like structures called denstries protuding from the cell body. The axon carries the impulses away from the cell body down the neuron which is covered in myelin sheath

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Synaptic transmission

As the neurotransmitter molecule the postsynaptic membrane it bind to the receptor for a breif period of time. This has one of two effects on the neuron; excitation or inhibition

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Excitation

when the electrical impulses in the neuron icreases

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Inhibition

when the electrical impulses in the neuron decrease

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Give an example of synpatic transmission

dopamine and serotonin are excitatory neurotransmitters and when they hit receptors on the post synaptic membrane they trigger electrical impulses in the neuron. GABA however is a inhibitory transmitter and when it locks on to receptors it decreases

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Hormones

hormones are chemcialmessages released from endocrine glands which regulate the activity of particular cells/organs

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Endocrine system

A network of glands which release hormones directly into the blood stream and then travel in the blood to their target organs. Hormones take longer to have an effect than the nervous system as hormones need to travel in the blood to their organs

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Adrenal Medula

Hormone= adrenaline Target Tissue= Heart Effect= beats heart faster

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Pancreas

Hormone= Insulin Target Tissue= Liver Effect= causes sugar to be absorbed

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Pituitary

Hormone= Growth hormone Target Tissue= All cells Effect= general promotion of cell growth

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Sympathetic state

Increases heart rate and breathing rate, dilates pupils, inhibits digestion, inhibits saliva production

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Parasympathetic state

Decreases heart rate and breathing rate, narrows pupils, stimulates digestion, stimulates saliva

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Flight or Fight response

endocrine and autonomic NS work in parallel with one another furing a stressful event. Firstly the autonomic NS changes from its resting state to physiological aroused. The pituitory gland then releases a hormone

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Flight or fight response

This hormone has an effect on the cells of the adrenal gland which causes them to release adrenaline into the bloodstream triggering psysiological changes in the body which creates the physiological state necessary for the flight or fight response

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Brain localisation

The idea that different parts of the brain have different roles.

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Holistic theory

The idea that all parts of the brain were involved in bringing about responses

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A study used to study CNS

The study of patients who suffered brain damage following an accident, stroke or tumour.

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What did Broca conclude from 'Tan'

that injury to certain parts of the left cerebal hemispshere caused patients speech to become slow and laboured, but the ability to understand speech was unaffected.

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What did Wernicke report?

That injury to a different part of the left temporal lobe caused problems understanding speech including ones owns speech and someone elses. This is called receptive aphasia. Patients with this will produce nonsense words

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Motor Area

Back of frontal lobe which controls voluntary movement in the opposite side of the body. Damage may result in a loss of control over fine movements

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Somatosensory area

Front of parietal lobes which is separated from the motor area by a valley called the central sulcus where sensory information from the skin is represented

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Visual area

In occipital libe. Each eye sends info from the right visual field to the right visual cortex. DAmage to the left hemisphere could produce blindness

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Auditory Area

In temporal lobes which analyses speech-based information which means damage to it may produce partial hearing loss. Damage to a specific area like Broca may affect the ability to comprehend language

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How does Lashley undermine Brain Localisation

LAshley suggests that high cognative functions such as the processes involved in learning, are not localised but distributed in a holistic way. He removed areas of the cortex from rats learning a maze and found no difference in learning the maze

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Brain scan evidence of localisation

Peterson et al used brain scans to demostrate how Wernickes area was active during a listening task and Broca's area was active during a reading task

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Neurological Evidence of localisation

The practice of surgically removing or destroying areas of the brain to control aspects of behaviour developed in the 2950s. This involved severing connections in the frontal lobe in an attempt to control aggressive behaviour

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Plasticity

The ability of the brain to change in response to life experiences

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Functional Recovery

WHe the brain redistributes brain functions to other parts of the brain if an area is damaged

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Maguire et al

Studied the brains of taxi drivers and found significantly more volume of grey matter in the posterior hippocampus

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Draganski

Imaged the brains of medical students 3 months before and after their final exmas. Learning induced chnages were seen to occur in the posterior hippo-campus and the parietal cortex

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Practical application of plasticity

Understanding the process involved in plasticity has contributed to our understanding of neuron rehabilitation. Following illness the brain will re-wire butafter a few weeks recovery is very slow unless therapy is used to encourage new connections

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Negative plasticity

The ability to re-wire sometimes has negative concequences. EG_ 60-80% of amputees have developed 'phantom limb syndrome'

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Age and plasticity

Plasticity reduces with age but it is very important to learn new skills as we age to build cognitive reserve

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Hemispheric Lateralisation

The idea that the 2 halves of the brain have different functions

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Rodger Sperry

The patient is asked to focus on the centre of a screen and is shown pictures or words briefly on the right or left side of the screen. THis technique has been used to investigate how the brain processes faces, emotions, language and words

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Describing what you see

When split brain patients are shown a pic of an object on the right side of their visual field they are able to name the object but when shown on the left they can't describe what they see as language centres are in the left hemisphere

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Recognition by touch

Although split brain patients are not able to say what they see on their left visual field they can correctly choose an item from a bag which matches the object they saw

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Composite words

If 2 words are presented simultaneously- one on eiother side of the visual field they are able to say the word they see on the right and draw the object on the left

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Matching Faces

If a picture is presnted briefly on a split brain patients left visual field they are able to correctly pick out that face again when shown 5 in a recognition task

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2 points to evaluate split brain studies

Easily replicated, stimulated further research

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Issues with generalisation of split brain research

Only 11 took part in all variations of the basic procedure, all of whom had a history of epileptic seizures. This may have caused unique changes in the brain that may have influenced the findings.

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Differences in function may be overstated- split brain

Although the verbal and non-verbal lobes can on occasion be usefully applied to summarise the differences between the two hemispheres, modern neuroscientists could contend that the distinction is less clear-cut

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Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging- FMRI

FRMI scanning measures blood flow to areas of the brain. The powerful magnetic field applied generates a signal represneting blood flows in different parts of the brain. The scanner detects the ratio of oxygenated-deoxygenated blood

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What do FRMI scans reveal?

Reveals which areas of the brain are consuming the most oxygen because the cells in that area are actively using oxygen in respiration due to blood flow increasing to areas of the brain which are carrying out tasks

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Strengths of FMRI

Doesnt involve injecting so is less ivasive and the signal from the brain is detected much faster so brain regions and cognitions can be directly correlated. The resolution is much higher so can distinguish parts of the brain which are only 1mm apart

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Electro-encephalograms

A test to detect abnormalities related to electrical actviity of the brain This procedure trcks and record brain wave patterns representing the electrical activity of millions of neurons. SMall mental discs with thin wires are placed on the scalp

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What can doctors look for in Electro-encephalograms?

Doctors can look for abnormal patterns that indicate seizures and other porblems. It is used to diagnose sleep disorders and changes in behaviour as well as sometimes evaluating brain activity after a severe head injury

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Strengths of EEG

Proven invaluable in the diagnosis of conditions such as epilepsy. It has contributed to our understanding of the stages involved in sleep and the technology has high temporal resolution so can accurately detect brain activity

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Weaknesses of EEG

EEG lies in the generalisaed nature of the information recieved. It does not allow researchers to distinguish between activities orginiating in different but adjacent locations

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Event related potentials- ERP's

Within EEg data are contained all the neural responses associated with specific sensory, cognative and motor events that may be of interest to cognative neuroscientists. Therefore, researchers have developed a way of teasing out and isolating these

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How are ERPs done?

All extraneous braina ctivity from the original EEg recording is filtered out leaving only those responses that relate to a specific stimulus/task. WHat remains are event-related potentials; types of brainwave that are triggered by particular events

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Strengths of ERP's

Bring much more specificity to the measurement of neural processes. Also as they are derived from EEg they haev high temporal resolution

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Weaknesses of ERP's

A lack of standardisation in ERP which makes it difficult to confirm findings. BAckground noise and other extraneous vaariables must be removed which is hard to achieve.

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Post Mortems

A technique involving the analysis of a person's brain follwoing their death. Those subject to a post mortem are likely to be those with a rare disorder and have visual deficits in mental processes or behaviour during lifetime.

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How are Post Mortems carried out?

Areas of damage within the brain are exaimed after death as a means of establishing the likely cause of the affliction the person suffered. This may also involve comparision with a neutrotypical brain in order to ascertain the extent of differences

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Strengths of Post Mortems

Vital in providing a foundation for early understanding of key processes in the brain. Broca and Wernicke both relied on post-mortem studies in establishing links between language, brain and behaviour. They improve medical knowledge and further study

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Weaknesses of Post Mortems

Causation is an issue, however observed damage to the brain may not be linked to the deficits under review but to some unrelated trauma/decay. Ethical issues of consent arise from patient before death

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Biolgical Rhythms

Periodic fluctuations in physiological functioning

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Circadian Rhythm

About a day. It occurs every 24 hours. For exmaple; sleep/wake cycle, body temperature

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Ultradian Rhythm

A rhythm which occurs more than once within 24 hours. EG- heart beat, appetite, blood pressure

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Infradian Rhythm

A rhythm which occurs over a period greater than 24 hours. EG- menstrual cycle

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Circannual Rhythm

A rhythm which occurs yearly. EG- hibernation, migration and mating

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How are circadian rhythms created?

Our circadian rhythms are reflected in processes such as metabolism and our digestive system

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What happens to animals in circadian rhythms?

Animals kept under constant light conditions still maintain a daily rhythmical cycle of roughly 24 hours so they sleep, eat and conduct activities at regular intervals. This suggests that biological rhythms must be controlled by internal mechanisms

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Exogenous Zeitgebers

Temperature and air pressure

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Endogenous Pacemakers

The main biological clock in humans is located in the hypothalamus in a group of neurones called the suprachiasmatic nuclei. These neurones have their own regular rhythms of activity

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What is the most important endogenous pacemaker?

The SCN is the most important as it in turn controls the pineal gland and the release of melatonin via an interconnecting pathway. The pathway connects the retina of the eye to the SCN

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One way of investigating endogenous pacemakers and external zeitgebers?

To carry out isolation studies which is where all possible external cues relating to time/day are removed. In a few studies Ps have either lived in caves or basements for a period of time while biological functions are recorded

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2 key structures in the control of biological rhythms

Suprachiasmatic nucleus and the pineal gland

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Research Study- Stephan and Zucker

Stephen and Zucker investigated the effects of damage to the SCN on circadian rhythms. Rats housed in labs with 12hours of light followed by 12hours of dark showed a circadian rhythm in terms of behaviour.

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What behaviours did the rats show?

They drank more and more and are more active during the dark period

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What did Stephen and Zucker find?

They found that damage to the SCN eliminated the normal circadian patterns of drinking and activity. They concluded that the SCN is one of the key pacemakers in the brain controlling circadian rhythms

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Ethical Issues in Stephen and Zucker study

11/25 rats survived the damage to the SCN and the others suffered permanent damage to their sleep/wake cycle

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Role of pineal gland

Less light is detected by receptors in retina-> A neurone connects the retina to SCN -> a neurone connects the SCN to the pineal gland -> Pineal galnd converts serotonin into melatonin -> melatonin is released into general bodily circulation -> acts

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How if the release of melatonin regulated?

Regulated by the amount of light falling on the pineal gland. Melatonin decreases as light increases

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Body Temperature

The rhythmic variation in body temperature is another circadian rhythm. Human body temperaature is at its lowest at about 4:30am (about 36) and is at its highest at around 6pm (about 38)

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Research Study- Michel Siffre

A French geologist spent 6 months in an undergrounf cave in Texas. There was no natural light, and in the absence of this critical zeitgeber biological rhythms became what is called free running.

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2 key findings of Siffre's cave experiment

His sleep/wake cycle extended from the nromal 24 hours to between 25 and 32 hours. WHen he emerged on the 179th day he estimated he had been underground for the 151 days. His body temp was more stable but extended to about 25 hours

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Methodological Issues

These studies are rare and usually only involve one or small numbers of Ps. Results maay not apply to the geberal population as individual differences are quite apparent in some. His body temperature may not be typical of all people.

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Evaluation of the role of endogenus pacemakers and exogenous zeitgebers

Research has revealed there are numerous circadian rhythms in many organs and cells. These are called peripheral oscillators and are found in the adrenal gland and other organs. These peripheral clocks are highly influenced by the actions of the SCN.

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Laughton experiment

Laughton recounted the story of a young man, blind from birth, with a circadian rhythm of 24.9 hours. Despite exposure to social cues his sleep/wake cycle couldn't be adjusted. Studies of indivudals who live in artic regions also show normal pattern

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Evaluation of research on Circadian Rhythm

Knowledge of circadian rhythms has given researchers a better understanding of the adverse consequences that ca occur as a result of their disruption.

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Circadian Rhythm research- shift work

Night workers in shift work experience a period of reduced concentration around 6am. This research shows how to best manage worker productivity

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Circadian Rhythm research- Body's basic processes

Body's basic processes such as heart rate and digestion are circadian rhythms. This in turn has an effect on pharmacokinetics, (the action of drugs on the body and there peak times). Ressearch revealed that there are peak times during the day/night

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Negatives of Circadian Rhythm research

Studies of the sleep/wake cycle tend to involve small groups of participants. Therefore, those involved may not be representative of the wider population, limiting the extent to which meaningful generalisations can be made. Individual cycles can vary

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Infradian Rhythms- Menstrual Cycle

The menstrual cycle is an example of a human biological infradian rhythm. Research studies indicate that the menstrual cycle is mainly regulated by endogenous pacemakers but that exogenous zeitgebers also play a part.

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A zeitgeber that helps regulate infradian rhythms

The release of Pheromones from others. Resrach has shown that when several women live together they tend to menstruate at the same time. This seems to be related to the release and detection of phermones

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Russell et al study

Daily samples of sweat were collected from one group of women and rubbed onto the upper lip of a second group of women. The two groups were kept seperate but their menstrual cycles became synchronised with their 'sweat donors' cycle

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Why have studies such as Russell et al been critised

They have been heavily criticised by a number of researchers on the grounds of methodological flaws. Some researchers refute the claim that pheromones affect the menstrual cycle in any way. The contribution of pheromones as an external zeitgeber

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Seasonal affective disorder

SAD is a form of depression that repeatedly occurs during the winter months. The symptoms include low activity levels, flat affect and general lack of interest in life. People with SAD tend to eat and sleep more. It is a example of an infradian rhyt

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Research into SAD

Treatments for SAD provides a cure for its cause. FOr some, brief exposure to bright light first thing can be effective against SAD. One effect of light is to supress the release of melatonin darkness increases melatonin production by the pineal glan

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How does SAD effect melatonin?

People with SAD may be less reactive to the effects of light so that they higher levels of melatonin. This could have an effect on the production of serotonin in the brains of people with SAD

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Ultradian Rhythm- The BRAC

BAsic Rest Activity Cycle. It describes how our level of alertness goes through peaks and troughs. Each cycle last approximately 90mins. This idea has face validity as it appears to fit in with most people's experience of daily life

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stages of sleep

Is an example of an Ultradian rhythm

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1. Just prior to sleep

Once in bed, we become relaxed and drowsy. The wave form changes to alpha. Dream-like experiences occur

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1. One

Brain wave slows alongside heart rate and muscles relax. May experience falling sensation. It is easy to wake from this stage and may not feel liek they have been asleep

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2. Two

Eyes roll and waves consist of large and slower aves whicha re inturupted by large spikey wave called K.Complexes

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3. Three

Now in deep sleep and cannot be easily woken

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4. Four

Very difficuly to be woken. Things like night terrors and sleep walking could occur

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5. REM

Rapid eye movement, virtually paralised and very difficult to wake someone from this stage

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Evaluation of research on Infradian and Ultradian

For our ancestors it may have been advantages for females to menstruate together and therefore fall pregnant around the same time. This would mean that new borns could be cared for collectively within a social group increasing the chances survival

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Criticisms of infradian and ultradian research

Criticisms have been made of early synchronisation studies and the methods employed. COmmentators argue that there are many factors that may affect chnage in menstrual cycle. This means that any supposed pattern of synchronisation

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