b1 biology core

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  • Created by: bbyjujux
  • Created on: 22-04-17 01:17
what makes a healthy diet?
1. A healthy diet contains the right balance of the different foods you need and the right amount of energy
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what makes a healthy diet?
Carbohydrates, fats and proteins are used by the body to release energy and to build cells.
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what makes a healthy diet?
Mineral ions and vitamins are needed in small amounts for healthy functioning of the body.
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what makes a healthy diet?
A person is malnourished if their diet is not balanced. This may lead to a person being overweight or underweight
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when does a person lose mass?
A person loses mass when the energy content of the food taken in is less than the amount of energy expended by the body.
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what does exercise increase?
Exercise increases the amount of energy expended by the body mass?
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what is a metabolic rate?
This is the rate at which all the chemical reactions in the cells of the body are carried out .
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what Metabolic rate varies on?
Metabolic rate varies with the amount of activity you do and the proportion of muscle to fat in your body
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what does Metabolic rate may be affected by?
Metabolic rate may be affected by inherited factors.
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what does inherited factors affect?
Inherited factors also affect our health; for example cholesterol level
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what are pathogens
Microorganisms that cause infectious disease are called pathogens.
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what may bacteria and viruses reproduce?
Bacteria and viruses may reproduce rapidly inside the body and may produce poisons (toxins) that make us feel ill.
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what do viruses damage?
Viruses damage the cells in which they reproduce.
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white blood cells may.....
ingest pathogens
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what do white blood cells produce
white blood cells may produce antibodies which bind to pathogens
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what also could white blood cell produce
white blood cells may produce antitoxins which bind to toxins produced by the microbe
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what does the immune system produce?
The immune system of the body produces specific antibodies to kill a particular pathogen
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what does this lead to?
This leads to immunity from that pathogen
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in some cases.....
dead or inactivated pathogens stimulate antibody production.
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what happens if a large proportion of the population is immune to pathogen
If a large proportion of the population is immune to a pathogen, the spread of the pathogen is very much reduced
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what did semmelweis recognise?
Semmelweis recognised the importance of hand-washing in the prevention of spreading some infectious diseases.
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what did he made doctors do and what did it reduce greatly
semmelweis instinted for doctors to wash their hand before examining patients which reduced the number of death from infections diseases in his hospital
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what do some medicines or pain killers
Some medicines, including painkillers, help to relieve the symptoms of infectious disease,
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what does this not kill ?
the pathogens
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what are antibiotics?
Antibiotics, including penicillin, are medicines that help to cure bacterial disease by killing infectious bacteria inside the body.
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what can Antibiotics cannot be used to kill?
Antibiotics cannot be used to kill viral pathogens, which live and reproduce inside cells.
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what kind of drug is difficult to develop without doing what?
It is difficult to develop drugs that kill viruses without also damaging the body’s tissues
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what should specific drug be treated by?
It is important that specific bacteria should be treated by specific antibiotics.
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what has the use of antibiotics greatly reduced?
The use of antibiotics has greatly reduced deaths from infectious bacterial diseases
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what has Overuse and inappropriate use of antibiotics has increased the rate of?
Overuse and inappropriate use of antibiotics has increased the rate of antibiotic resistant strains of bacteria
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a bunch of bacteria including a resistant variety...
get bathed in antibiotics most of the normal bacteria die
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the resistant bacteria multiply and...
become more common
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eventually the....
entire infection envolves into resistant strain
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what does antibiotics kill?
Antibiotics kill individual pathogens of the non-resistant strain.
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what do Individual resistant pathogens do?
Individual resistant pathogens survive and reproduce, so the population of the resistant strain increases
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what are antibiotics no longer used to treat?
antibiotics are no longer used to treat non-serious infections, such as mild throat infections, so that the rate of development of resistant strains is slowed down
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what have many strains of bacteria, including MRSA developed
resistance to antibiotics as a result of natural selection.
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why is it important to avoid overuse of antibiotics?
To prevent further resistance arising it is important to avoid overuse of antibiotics.
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what do Mutations of pathogens produce?
Mutations of pathogens produce new strains.
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what can Antibiotics and vaccinations may no longer be effective against?
a new resistant strain of the pathogen.
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the new strain will then......
spread rapidly because people are not immune to it and there is no effective treatment.
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what does The development of antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria necessitates?
The development of antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria necessitates the development of new antibiotics.
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what can people be immunised against?
a disease by introducing small quantities of dead or inactive forms of the pathogen into the body (vaccination).
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what can vaccines stimulate?
the white blood cells to produce antibodies that destroy the pathogens.
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what does the person immune to?
This makes the person immune to future infections by the microorganism.
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how can the body response to this
The body can respond by rapidly making the correct antibody, in the same way as if the person had previously had the disease.
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what is a mmr vaccine used to protect
MMR vaccine is used to protect children against measles, mumps and rubella.
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what are Uncontaminated cultures of microorganisms required for?
investigating the action of disinfectants and antibiotics.
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for this-what must Petri dishes and culture media be
Petri dishes and culture media must be sterilised before use to kill unwanted microorganisms (THIS IS DONE BY BOILING IN WATER)
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what are Inoculating loops used to transfer?
Inoculating loops used to transfer microorganisms to the media must be sterilised by passing them through a flame
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what should the lid of the petri dish should be secured with?
adhesive tape to prevent microorganisms from the air contaminating the culture.
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what should laboratories, cultures be in a school and college
In school and college laboratories, cultures should be incubated at a maximum temperature of 25°C, which greatly reduces the likelihood of growth of pathogens that might be harmful to humans.
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in industrial conditions.....
conditions higher temperatures can produce more rapid growth
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what does the nervous system enables humans to react to?
their surroundings and coordinate their behavior.
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what do cells that are called receptors detect?
stimuli
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Receptors and the stimuli they detect include?
receptors in the eyes that are sensitive to light ■receptors in the ears that are sensitive to sound
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Receptors and the stimuli they detect include?
■receptors in the ears that are sensitive to changes in position and enable us to keep our balance ■receptors on the tongue and in the nose that are sensitive to chemicals and enable us to taste and to smell
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Receptors and the stimuli they detect include?
■receptors in the skin that are sensitive to touch, pressure, pain and temperature changes.
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what do Light receptor cells, like most animal cells,have
a nucleus, cytoplasm and cell membrane.
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what are the cells called that Information from receptors passess along?
Information from receptors passes along cells are called (neurones) in nerves to the brain.
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what does the brain do?
The brain coordinates the response
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what are reflex action?
Reflex actions are automatic and rapid
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what 3 neurone of reflex include
Sensory neurone (carry messages from receptor to CNS) Relay neurone (connect the sensory neurone to the motor neurone in the CNS) Motor neurones ( carry messages from the CNS to the effector)
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what does cns stand for
CNS = CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
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simple reflex action- where does the inpulses from a receptor passes through?
Impulses from a receptor pass along a sensory neurone to the central nervous system
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what happens when a junction (synapse between a sensary neurone
At a junction (synapse) between a sensory neurone and a relay neurone in the central nervous system, a chemical is released that causes an impulse to be sent along a relay neurone
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where is a chemical reaction then released
A chemical is then released at the synapse between a relay neurone and motor neurone in the central nervous system, causing impulses to be sent along a motor neurone to the organ (the effector) that brings about the response
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what is the effector?
The effector is either a muscle or a gland, a muscle responds by contracting and a gland responds by releasing (secreting) chemical substances.
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control in the human body
Internal conditions that are controlled include:
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the water content of the body
water leaves the body via the lungs when we breathe out and via the skin when we sweat to cool us down, and excess water is lost via the kidneys in the urine
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the ion content of the body
ions are lost via the skin when we sweat and excess ions are lost via the kidneys in the urine
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temperature
– to maintain the temperature at which enzymes work best
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blood sugar levels
to provide the cells with a constant supply of energy.
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hormones-
Many processes within the body are coordinated by chemical substances called hormones. Hormones are secreted by glands and are usually transported to their target organs by the bloodstream
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menstrual cycle- what do hormones regulate?
Hormones regulate the functions of many organs and cells. For example, the monthly release of an egg from a woman’s ovaries and the changes in the thickness of the lining of her womb are controlled by hormones secreted by the pituitary gland and by
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what are several hormones involved in?
Several hormones are involved in the menstrual cycle of a woman. Hormones are involved in promoting the release of an egg
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what is follicle stimulating hormone
secreted by the pituitary gland and causes eggs to mature in the ovaries. It also stimulates the ovaries to produce hormones including oestrogen
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what do luteinishing hormone stimulate?
the release of eggs from the ovary
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what is a oestrogen
is secreted by the ovaries and inhibits the further production of FSH.
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use of hormones infertility treatments-Giving oral contraceptives that contain what
Giving oral contraceptives that contain hormones to inhibit FSH production so that no eggs mature
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what does oral contraceptives may contain?
oral contraceptives may contain oestrogen and progesterone to inhibit egg maturation
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what does the first birth control pills used to contain?
the first birth control pills contained large amounts of oestrogen. These resulted in women suffering significant side effects
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what do birth control now contain
birth control pills now contain a much lower dose of oestrogen, or are progesterone only. Progesterone only pills lead to fewer side effects
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what does ivf involve?
IVF involves giving a mother FSH and LH to stimulate the maturation of several eggs.
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where are the eggs collected from?
The eggs are collected from the mother and fertilised by sperm from the father. The fertilised eggs develop into embryos.
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what happens at the stage when they are tiny balls
At the stage when they are tiny balls of cells, one or two embryos are inserted into the mother’s uterus (womb).
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what are plants sensitive to?
Plants are sensitive to light, moisture and gravity
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what do their shoots grow towards?
their shoots grow towards light and against the force of gravity
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what do their roots grow towards
their roots grow towards moisture and in the direction of the force of gravity.
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auxins-plant hormones,- what do produce to coordinate?
Plants produce hormones to coordinate and control growth
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what does auxin control?
Auxin controls phototropism and gravitropism (geotropism).
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what is the result of unequal distribution of hormones, causing unequal growth rates.
The responses of plant roots and shoots to light, gravity and moisture are the result of unequal distribution of hormones, causing unequal growth rates.
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what happens if a plant is laid on its side
auxin gathers in the lower half of the stem and root
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auxin slows growth in the....
root so the root curves downwards
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what does auxin stimulate?growthin the shoot so the stem curves upwards
growth in the shoot so the stem curves upwards
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what are plant growth hormones used for
Plant growth hormones are used in agriculture and horticulture as weed killers and as rooting hormones
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drug- stantins whatare statins used for?
Statins are used to lower cholesterol levels which help to reduce the the risk of heart and circulatory diseases.
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what do new medical drug are devised have to be?
When new medical drugs are devised, they have to be extensively tested and trialled before being used.
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what are drugs tested in?
Drugs are tested in a series of stages to find out if they are safe and effective to use
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what are new tested drugs for?
1. Toxicity 2. Efficacy 3. Dose
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how are new drugs tested?
In the laboratory, using cells, tissues and live animals In clinical trials involving healthy volunteers and patients.
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how are new drugs tested?
Very low doses of the drug are given at the start of the clinical trial. If the drug is found to be safe, further clinical trials are carried out to find the optimum dose for the drug.
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how are new drugs tested?
In some double blind trials, some patients are given a placebo, which does not contain the drug. Neither the doctors nor the patients know who has received a placebo and who has received the drug until the trial is complete.
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what was thalidomide developed as?
Thalidomide is a drug that was developed as a sleeping
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what were they also found to be effective in?
It was also found to be effective in relieving morning sickness in pregnant women.
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what had thalidomide not been tested for?
Thalidomide had not been tested for use in pregnant women. Unfortunately, many babies born to mothers who took the drug were born with severe limb abnormalities.
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what happened to this drug then
The drug was then banned
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what happened as result of this
As a result, drug testing has become much more rigorous.
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what has thalidomide been used siccesfully in treating
More recently, thalidomide has been used successfully in the treatment of leprosy and other diseases.
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what should you be aware of
Be aware of the effects of misuse of the legal recreational drugs, alcohol and nicotine.
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what may the missuse of illegal recreational drugs have effect on
the misuse of the illegal recreational drugs ecstasy, cannabis and heroin may have adverse effects on the heart and circulatory system.
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what is cannabis?
an illegal drug
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what does cannabis smoke may contain
chemicals which may cause mental illness in some people.
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what does drugs change in peoples bodies
Drugs change the chemical processes in peoples’ bodiesso that they may become dependent or addicted to the drugand suffer withdrawal symptoms without them.
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what are heroin and cocaine?
Heroin and cocaine are very addictive
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athletes and drugs- what can several types of drugs do to athletes
There are several types of drug that an athlete can use to enhance performance.
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what are some of this drugs?
Some of these drugs are banned by law and some are legally available on prescription, but all are prohibited by sporting Regulations.
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stimulants that do what?
Stimulants that boost bodily functions such as heart rate
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Anabolic steroids which can stimulate what?
Anabolic steroids which stimulate muscle growth.
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adaptations- to survive and reproduce what do organisms require?
To survive and reproduce, organisms require a supply of materials from their surroundings and from the other living organisms there
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what do plants often compete with each other for
Plants often compete with each other for light and space, and for water and nutrients from the soil
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what do animals often compere with each other for?
Animals often compete with each other for food, mates and territory.
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what do organisms including have, that enables them to do what?
Organisms, including microorganisms, have features (adaptations) that enable them to survive in the conditions in which they normally live.
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what kind of environments do some organisms live in?
Some organisms live in environments that are very extreme
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what may extremophiles be tolerant to
Extremophiles may be tolerant to high levels of salt, high temperatures or high pressures.
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what may animal have for survival?
Animals and plants may be adapted for survival in the conditions where they normally live, eg deserts, the Arctic
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Animals may be adapted for survival in dry and arctic environments by means of what
1.changes to surface area. 2.thickness of insulating coat. 3.amount of body fat. 4.camouflage
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plants might do what?
Plants may be adapted to survive in dry environments
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by means of what
■changes to surface area, particularly of the leaves ■water-storage tissues ■extensive root systems.
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animals and plants may be adapted to cope with what
Animals and plants may be adapted to cope with specific features of their environment, eg thorns, poisons and warning colours to deter predators
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what does the change in the environment affect?
Changes in the environment affect the distribution of living organisms
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what can we use TO INVESTIGATE WHICH TYPE OF ENVIRONMENT ANIMALS ARE BEST ADAPTED TO
CHAMBERS
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what are Animals and plants subjected to?
environmental changes
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what may the changes be caused by?
Such changes may be caused by living or non-living factors such as a change in a competitor, or in the average temperature or rainfall.
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what can environmental changes be measured by?
using non-living indicators such as oxygen levels, temperature and rainfall.
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what can living organisms be used as?
Living organisms can be used as indicators of pollution
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what can lichens be used as?
lichens can be used as air pollution indicators, particularly of the concentration of sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere
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what can invertebrate animals be used for?
Invertebrate animals can be used as water pollution indicators and are used as indicators of the concentration of dissolved oxygen in water.
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what can we find through By observing the numbers and sizes of the organisms in food chains
we can find out what happens to energy and biomass as it passes along the food chain.
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what is radiation from the sun a source of?
Radiation from the Sun is the source of energy for most communities of living organisms
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what do Green plants and algae absorb a small amount of?
the light that reaches them
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during when doestransfer from light energy to chemical energy occurs?
during photosynthesis
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what is stored and where
energy is stored in the substances that make up the cells of the plants
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what isThe mass of living material (biomass) at each stage in a food chain?
less than it was at the previous stage.
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The biomass at each stage can be drawn to what?
to scale and shown as a pyramid of biomass.
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what are The amounts of material and energy contained in the biomass of organisms?
reduced at each successive stage in a food chain
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why
1. some materials and energy are always lost in the organisms’ waste materials 2. Respiration supplies all the energy needs for living processes, including movement. Much of this energy is eventually transferred to the surroundings.
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decay processes- what do living things remove materials from the environment for?
Living things remove materials from the environment for growth and other processes
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where are These materials returned to in the environment?
either in waste materials or when living things die and decay.
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why do materials decay?
Materials decay because they are broken down (digested) by Microorganisms.
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what are microorganisms more?
more active and digest materials faster in warm ,moist, aerobic conditions.
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what happens in a stable community?
the processes that remove materials are balanced by processes that return materials. The materials are constantly cycled
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what does The decay process release?
substances that plants need to grow.
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in a carbon cycle- where is carbon removed from?
1.Carbon dioxide is removed from the environment by green plants and algae for photosynthesis
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what is The carbon from the carbon dioxide is used to make?
2.The carbon from the carbon dioxide is used to make carbohydrates, fats and proteins, which make up the body of plants and algae
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what happens when green plants and respire?
3.When green plants and algae respire, some of this carbon becomes carbon dioxide and is released into the atmosphere
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what happens When green plants and algae are eaten by animals and these animals are eaten by other animals
4.When green plants and algae are eaten by animals and these animals are eaten by other animals, some of the carbon becomes part of the fats and proteins that make up their bodies
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what happens when When animals respire?
5.When animals respire, some of this carbon becomes carbon dioxide and is released into the atmosphere
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what happens when When plants, algae and animals die?
some animals and microorganisms feed on their bodies
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what happens when Carbon is released into the atmosphere?.
7 the atmosphere as carbon dioxide when these organisms respire
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what happens By the time the microorganisms and detritus?
8.By the time the microorganisms and detritus feeders have broken down the waste products
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what happens to dead bodies?
9.Dead bodies of organisms in ecosystems and cycled the materials as plant nutrients, all the energy originally absorbed by green plants and algae has been transferred
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what does Combustion of wood and fossil fuels release?
10.Combustion of wood and fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
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what are the Differences in the characteristics of different individuals of the same kind may be due to differences in:?
■the genes they have inherited (genetic causes) ■the conditions in which they have developed (environmental causes) ■or a combination of both.
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what do different genes control
Different genes control the development of different characteristics of an organism.
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what does the information Different genes control the development of different characteristics of an organism.
to their parents is carried by genes, which are passed on in the sex cells (gametes) from which the offspring develop.
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what does The nucleus of a cell contain?
chromosomes
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what do chromosomes carry?
Chromosomes carry genes that control the characteristics of the body.
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reproduction- how many forms of reproduction is there
there are two forms of reproduction
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what are the 2 forms of reproduction called?
sexual reproduction, asexual reproduction
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what is sexual reproduction
the joining of male and female gametes. The mixture of the genetic information from two parents leads to variety in the offspring
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what does the mixture of the genetic information from two parents lead to?
the variety in the offspring
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what is asexual reproduction
no fusion of gametes and only one individual is needed as the parent there is no mixing of genetic information and so no genetic variation in the offspring. These genetically identical individuals are known as clones.
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how can new plants be produced?
New plants can be produced quickly and cheaply by taking cuttings from older plants
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what are the old plants to the new plant
These new plants are genetically identical to the parent plant.
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modern cloning techniques-tissue culture how does it work?
Using a small groups of cells from part of a plant
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embryo transplants-spillting apart what from a what?
splitting apart cells from a developing animal embryo before they become specialised,
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what happens after?
then transplanting the identical embryos into host mothers
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adult cell cloning- what is removed to from what?
1.The nucleus is removed from an unfertilised egg cell.
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the nucleus from what is then inserted into what?
2.The nucleus from an adult body cell, e.g. a skin cell, is then inserted into the egg cell.
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an electric what causes what?
3.An electric shock then causes the egg cell to begin to divide to form embryo cells.
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what do these embryo cells contain?
4. These embryo cells contain the same genetic information as the adult skin cell.
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when the embryo has developed into what, what happens then?
5.When the embryo has developed into a ball of cells, it is inserted into the womb of an adult female to continue its development.
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genetic engineering- genes from the chromosomes of humans and other organism can be what?
genes from the chromosomes of humans and other organisms can be ‘cut out’ using enzymes and transferred to cells of other organisms.
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genetically modified crops- genes can also be transfered to where?
Genes can also be transferred to the cells of animals, plants or microorganisms at an early stage in their development
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so that they what?
so that they develop with desired characteristics:
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what can new genes be?
new genes can be transferred to crop plants
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what are crops that have had their genes modified in this way called
genetically modified crops (GM crops)
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what does genetically modified crops generally show
increased yields.
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what are the concers of gm crops
Concerns are that GM crops might effect the populations of wild flowers and insects, and uncertainty about the effects of eating GM crops on human health
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evolution- what is darwin's theory
Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection states that all species of living things have evolved from simple life forms that first developed more than three billion years ago.
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what is lamarck theory
Other theories, including that of Lamarck, are based mainly on the idea that changes that occur in an organism during its lifetime can be inherited. We now know that in the vast majority of cases this type of inheritance cannot occur
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what does studing the similarities and differences between organisms allows us to classify
living organisms into animals, plants and microorganisms, and helps us to understand evolutionary and ecological relationships.
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what does models allow us to suggest?
Models allow us to suggest relationships between organisms
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evolution occurs via what?
natural selction
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what may individual organisms within a particular species show?
show a wide range of variation because of differences in their genes
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what does individuals with characteristics suit the most
individuals with characteristics most suited to the environment are more likely to survive to breed successfully
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what do the genes that have enabled these individuals to survive are then passed on to?
the next generation.
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what is mutation?
change to a gene
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what new forms of a gene....
Where new forms of a gene result from mutation there may be relatively rapid change in a species if the environment changes.
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when can mutations happen?
Mutations can happen spontaneously at fertilization or can be caused by some chemicals or radiation
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