Attitudes

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What is Thurstone's definition of an attitude?
The affect for or against a psychological object
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What is Allport's definition of an attitude?
Attitudes are a mental and neural state of readiness, organised through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual's response to all objects and situations with which it is related
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What did Fazio state?
Associations between attitude, objects and evaluations of these objects
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What is an attitude represented in memory by?
An object label and rules for applying that label, an evaluative summary of that object, a knowledge structure supporting that evaluation
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What is an example of a unitary model?
Affective evalution
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What is an example of dual model?
Mental readiness, guide evaluative responses
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What is an example of tripartite model?
Affect, behaviour, cognition
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What is an example of tripartite model?
Cognitive (Belief based: beer helps me relax), Affective (Emotion based: I enjoy drinking beer), Behavioural (Intention based: I plan to drink more beer after work)
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What is the mere exposure theory?
Familiarity increases liking, for example: The more familiar something is, the more you like it. The more you see an annoying person, the more you come to like them
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What is the classical conditioning theory?
Neutral stimuli paired with the salient response result in an attitude
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What is an instrumental conditioning?
Attitudes shaped by a reinforcement system of a reward and punishment
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What are 2 other behaviour theory?
Observational learning, modelling in vicarious experiences
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What is the information integration theory?
Formed by averaging available information on object
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What is mood as information hypothesis?
Emotion provides basis of evaluation of objects
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What is heuristic/ associative processing?
Decision 'rules of thumb' are used to make judgements and form mental shortcuts in memory
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What is self perception theory?
Infer attitudes from own behaviour, heterosexual anxiety, we are what we pretend to be, so we must be careful about what we pretend to be
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How do parents source attitude formation?
Infer attitudes from those most closest to you, strength of association ranges from strong (for broad issues such as politics, religion) to very weak (Connell, 1972, for specific attitudes)
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What is mass media?
Particularly television an important influence of attitude formation especially in children, links between television advertisements and children in attitudes
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What are attitudes used for?
Attitudes serve as conscious and unconscious motives and have different functions
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What is knowledge function?
Assist making sense of the world and to organise the information we encounter
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What is utilitarian function?
Help us behave in socially acceptable ways to gain positive and avoid negative outcomes
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What is the value expressive function?
Express personally held values and self identity, publicly express what you believe in
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What is ego defensive function?
Allow us to preserve a positive sense of self, express a particular attitude to protect your self esteem
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What did Katz suggest?
More or less useful depending on the field, some may not be relevant, may be able to identify further functions
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What is measurement difficulties?
People may lack insight into functions, demand characteristics in responding.
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What is it useful in?
Designing pesuasive communications
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What is the matching hypothesis?
Messages will be most persuasive if they match the functions of the attitudes they target
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What is the likert scale?
'I believe that nuclear power plants are one of the great dangers of industrial societies, +2 strongly agree, +1 moderately agree
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What is a likert type self rating scale?
They self rate, are you in favour of having nuclear power plants in Britain
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What is Acquiscent response set?
Tendency to agree with items, mix positively and negatively phrased items to counteract problem
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What is the semantic differential scale?
Rate on bad between bad good
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What are physiological measures?
- Polygraph - People less able to alter responses - But only measures intensity - But can be influenced by other things - Development of social neuroscience methods
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What are unobtrusive measures of behaviour?
It might be a socially sensitive subject, therefore, we try to unobtrusively measure what people feel. Observing non verbal behaviour
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What are implicit measures?
- Based on activation of accessible categories in memory - Less easy for participants to influence their responses - Not always reliable
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What is the attitude accessibility model?
Attitudes that have a strong link are highly accessible, attitudes are most influential when they are relevant and important, attitudes can be accessible from recent activations
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What was LaPiere's study on attitudes?
Classic study: Hoteliers and restraunter's attitudes towards Asians in 1930s USA
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What was Wicker's study on attitudes?
Attitude weakly correlated with behaviour across 45 studies
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What was Gregson and Stacey's study on attitudes?
Only a small positive correlation between attitudes and alcohol consumption
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What are two methodological reasons?
Unreliability and low validity of attitude/behavioural measures. Time between attitudes and behavioural measure
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What are other variables?
Lack of compatibility between atittude and behaviour, target, action, context and time,
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What is there a strong what?
Indirect attitude behaviour relationship
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For example?
Through intentions (just because you like something, doesn't mean you intend to do it
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What did Fishbein (1967) suggest about attitudes?
Alone will not predict behaviour, interaction between beliefs, values, attitudes and intentions are important
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What is belief?
Behaviour will result in certain outcome (Studying hard will gain me good grades)
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What is value?
Outcome is highly valued (Getting good grades is important to me
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How is the attitude score calculated?
Each belief is multiplied by each value
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What is the theory of reasoned action?
Attitudes and subjective norms lead to intentions and behaviour
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What is an subjective norm?
Evaluation of others evaluation, my parents think
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What is intentions?
Stated volitional plans... I plan/ I intend/ I expect
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What is the theory of planned behaviour?
Attitudes, subjective norms and perceived control lead to intentions
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What is perceived control?
Evaluation of capacities/barriers/abilities/ self efficacy/easy difficult
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What does explicit measures of attitude lead to?
Deliberate behaviour
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What does implicit measures of attitude lead to?
Automatic behaviour
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What is persuasive communication?
 The ‘Yale’ approach precursor and highly influential in persuasive communication
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What is Carl Hovland and coworkers identified?
The features of persuasive communication: Source or communicator, meassage, audience
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What is more effective?
Popular and attractive communicators
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What else happens?
People speaking more quickly are more effective than slow speakers
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What is the message?
 Persuasion is more effective if the message is not thought to be trying to influence  Repetition increases familiarity, belief and liking  Persuasion is enhanced if arguments match the audiences current attitude functions.
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Does fear work?
Early research suggested low fear was optimal
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What did leventhal et al find?
found high-fear message promoted greater willingness to stop smoking
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What did McGuire suggest?
She suggested an inverted U hypothesis,  Messages with too little fear may not highlight the potential harm of the targeted act  Very disturbing images may distract people from the message itself or may evoke an ‘avoidance’ reaction (Keller & Block
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Witte and Allen (2000)
o strong fear appeals produce high levels of perceived severity and susceptibility, and are most persuasive o fear can motivate adaptive actions e.g. message acceptance and maladaptive actions e.g. defensive avoidance
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What does strong fear appeal?
o strong fear appeals and high-efficacy messages produce the greatest behavior change
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What does strong fear appeal with?
low-efficacy messages produce the greatest levels of defensive responses o Ignore message, discredit source
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What is gain?
‘Mitigating climate change will help to protect Europe’s natural systems and biodiversity
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What is loss?
‘Without mitigating climate change, Europe’s natural systems and biodiversity will be threatened.’
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Messages that provoke fear are what?
More memorable, increased perceived severity of the problem
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What happened to overall messages?
Focus on positives, increased positive attitudes towards climate change mitigation
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What did health psychology suggest?
Focusing on gains or losses is differently useful for different behaviour
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What is the best form of medium?
for easy messages it is Video tape, for hard messages: Written
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What did McGuire suggest?
Followed an inverted U shape, low self esteem: Less attentive, more anxious. High self esteem: less susceptible to influence, more self assured
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What was found about people with low self esteem?
Were more susceptible to persuasion and attitude change
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Women are more what?
Easily persuaded than men
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Why?
 Socialisation into cooperative roles (Eagly et al., 1981)  Women less familiar with male orientated topics?
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Why else could women be mroe easily persuaded than men?
Due to predominance of male researchers
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Carli (1990)
Men in particular resist influence by women - especially when communication has a highly competent, powerful style, women more persuasive in female domains, tempered when women also display warmth and communality
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What is the elaboration likelihood model?
Two routes of persuasion
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what is the central route?
when message is followed closely, considerable cognitive effort expended (closely follow a message and process it)
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What is the peripheral route?
Superficial processing of peripheral cues, attraction rather than information (Only process information superficially, due to fancying the talker rather than looking at information)
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What is the systematic processing?
careful, deliberative scanning and processing of available information
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What is heuristic processing?
people use ‘cognitive heuristics’ or ‘shortcuts’ to make judgements
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For example?
 ‘longer arguments are always convincing’  ‘statistics don’t lie’  ‘you can’t trust a lawyer’  ‘he looks knowledgeable’
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What did Petty and Wegener (1998) suggest?
suggest a ‘sufficiency threshold’ – as long as heuristics produce an attitude that we are confident with  if not, systematic processing may be used
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What is the use of systematic processing halted by ?
Mood: people in good moods use heuristic, emotion: High fear messages tend to be processed peripherally while low fear more centrally
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What is the cognitive dissonance theory?
Behaviour driving change
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What did Festinger suggest?
 Cognitive dissonance – unpleasant state of psychological tension when inconsistency occurs o Any inconsistency may motivate change
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What is premise 1?
If a person behaves OR is presented with information that is counter attitudinal an internal conflict arises – ‘dissonance’
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What is premise 2?
Dissonance motivates people to make alterations to their behavioural or internal states to restore equilibrium
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What is Premise 3?
Dissonance can be attenuated (red uced) using 3 means
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What are the 3 means?
o reducing the importance of one of the dissonant elements (attitude change) o adding a ‘consonant’ element (cognitive re-appraisal) o changing one of the dissonant elements (behaviour
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Card 2

Front

What is Allport's definition of an attitude?

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Attitudes are a mental and neural state of readiness, organised through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual's response to all objects and situations with which it is related

Card 3

Front

What did Fazio state?

Back

Preview of the front of card 3

Card 4

Front

What is an attitude represented in memory by?

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Preview of the front of card 4

Card 5

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What is an example of a unitary model?

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