Attachment

Define attachment and give the three behaviours associated with it.

Attachment is the two-way emotional bond between two people. The behaviours are :
1. Seeking proximity, especially at times of stress. 2. Distress on separation and pleasure when reunited
3.Secure base behaviour

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Define reciprocity

During caregiver-infant interactions reciprocity is any behaviour that
is produced as a response to the other person’s behaviour. It is always two-way

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Define interactional synchrony

Interactional synchrony relates to the timing and pattern of the interaction - it is also always a two-way interaction

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Whats the difference between interactional synchrony and reciprocity?

The distinction is that reciprocity is just about turn taking, whilst synchronicity is a richer and
broader concept and is about being in tune with each other so is actually more about emotion than
behaviours.

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Outline research into caregiver-infant interactions

Meltzoff and Moore (1977) - observation on babies, adult displayed a facial expression and hand gesture, response was filmed and identified by observers who didn't know what they had seen, scores >.92.

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Outline research into how important is just reciprocity in the development of attachment

Belsky (1984) observed interactions when the infant was 1,3 and 9 months, then at 12 months
low and high levels of reciprocal interaction = insecurely attached, moderate = securely attached

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What does the research into how important just reciprocity is in the development of attachment imply?

This study suggests then that it is the sensitivity of the caregiver’s interactions (interactional synchrony) that is important and not just the amount of reciprocal interactions.

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Outline research suggesting the level of interactional synchrony helps predicts attachment types

Isabella et al (1991) observed mother-infant interactions at 3 and 9 months and then at 12 months, assessed the quality of their attachments good interactional synchrony = secure attachment, bad = insecure

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Evaluate reciprocity (supporting research)

Metzoff and Moore carried out an observation on children, children mimicked gestures made by adults showing the existence of reciprocity in babies

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Evaluate the supporting research for reciprocity (validity)

Observations are recorded, controlled procedures involving inter-observers so high in validity. But the behaviours children display may not always be them engaging in reciprocity.

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Evaluate the supporting research for reciprocity (not universal)

Interactional synchrony is not found in all cultures. Le vine (1994) reported that Kenyan mothers have little physical contact or interactions with their children but are securely attached.

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Evaluate the supporting research for reciprocity (practical applications)

To help children from foster care, caregivers are encouraged to mirror and share their child’s emotion by engaging in reciprocal behaviour to show the importance of healthy and happy relationships

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Outline research into the stages of attachment

Schaffer and Emerson’s 1964 study of babies from Glasgow, 60 babies 50% had signs of separation anxiety by 7 months. then by 10 months, 80% had those signs and 30% had multiple attachments. By 1 yr, 78% had multiple attachments and 33% had 5 or more.

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Define the pre-attachment stage

Birth – 3 months

Babies smile, ‘sociable’ after 6 weeks.

Can tell people apart, comforted by anyone

Did not show a fear of strangers

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Define the Indiscriminate
attachment stage

3 months – 7/8months
Forming bonds with carers through reciprocity and interactional synchrony Behavior towards animate and inanimate objects is quite similar
Start to be more content in presence with other people. Allow strangers to handle them but mor

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Define the Discriminate
attachment stage

Usually 7/8 months onward. The key things about this stage are that the infant begins to show separation anxiety and “protests” when their primary attachment figure leaves (the biological mother in 75% of cases)Scared by strangers.

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Define the Multiple
Attachments stage

9 months onwards Shortly after infants show specific attachments they begin to make multiple attachments (29% within a month according to Schaffer’s study). This is usually towards friends, grandparents and child-minders/ nursery staff.

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Outline the procedure in a study investigating the mechanisms of imprinting

Lorenz (1935) split some greylag goose eggs into two batches- either hatched by the mother or incubator, Lorenz the first thing they say. The goslings were marked and placed under a box, behaviour recorded as he removed it.

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Outline the findings of a study investigating the mechanisms of imprinting

Even when mixed, the incubator group followed Lorenz and the other their mother. There was a critical period of 4-25 hours - if there was no imprinting, no attachment. Goslings attached to humans would later attempt to mate with them

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Outline the procedure of a study determining whether food or comfort was the important factor in attachment

Harlow (1959): 16 baby monkeys with two 'mothers', 4/16 used in each condition: 1.Wire with milk, towel not 2. wire not, towel with milk 3.wire with milk 4. towel with milk. Monkeys observed, loud noise to frighten and a large cage used

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Outline the findings of a study determining whether food or comfort was the important factor in attachment

Monkeys prefered the towel mother, regardless of milk production. Monkeys with only the wire were distressed and has diarrhoea. They clung to towel when loud noise occurred. Monkeys with towel explored more and visited the towel often.

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The result of a study determining whether food or comfort was the important factor in attachment (the monkeys in adulthood)

Harlow's monkeys were more aggressive, less sociable, bred less often as were unskilled at mating. Some mothers neglected their young and others attacked their children, sometimes killing.

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Evaluation of animal studies (nature and complexity of the bond)

You can't generalise Lorenz’s findings to humans as a mammal’s attachment system is different to birds. Mammals show more emotional attachment and may be able to form attachments at any time, So the bond in humans is much more complex

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Evaluation of animal studies (Problems of extrapolation to attachment in human infants)

can we generalise the findings to humans.M onkeys are more similar to humans than geese but they are still not human and so it is argued that we can not necessarily generalise Harlow’s or Lorenz’s research to human attachments.

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Evaluation of animal studies (Ethical issues)

Monkeys are similar enough, so the suffering they encountered was presumably very human like there were sever long term effects for all of the monkeys. Some say the findings were important enough to justify the ethical issues though.

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Evaluation of animal studies (Imprinting not always permanent)

Guiton (1966) found - when chickens imprinted on yellow rubber glove they did, but learned with experience to prefer mating with other chickens. So it suggests that the impact of imprinting on mating behaviour is not as permanent as Lorenz believed.

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Evaluation of the stages of attachment (pre-attachment stage)

Bushnell (1989) - 2 day olds saw either their mothers face or the face of a stranger until they spent 20 seconds focusing on one. 2/3 preferred their mothers faceover that of a stranger - so maybe no pre-attachment stage

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Evaluation of the stages of attachment (Glasgow babies)

Study is based on babies from the same area and were the same social class. The findings of the study can’t be generalised to other types of families, so it questions whether the stagescan be generalised.

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Evaluation of the stages of attachment (Generalising)

In cultural contexts where multiple care-givers are the norm, many psychologists believe that babies form multiple attachments from the outset . For these children then the stages would not apply.

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How is attachment behaviour around the world studied?

The strange situation

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Outline the procedure of a study investigating the cultural variations in attachment styles

Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988), conducted A meta-analysis of 32studies that used the strange situation to measure attachment behaviour. 8 countries used, Western cultures and non-Western cultures .The 32studies yielded results for 1,990children.

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Outline the findings of a study investigating the cultural variations in attachment styles

1. Secure attachment was the most common everywhere 2. In the West, the main style of insecure attachment found was avoidant 3.Elsewhere, the main style of insecure attachment was resistant 4. Differences in cultures were 1.5x greater than between them.

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What do the findings of a study investigating the cultural variations in attachment styles show us?

There may be universal characteristics in infant care (as the dominant attachment was secure), caregiver interactions. Variations in insecure attachment suggest that culture must play some part, but there are sub-cultures to be considered

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Evaluate the study investigating the cultural variations in attachment (supporting research)

Sagi (1991) found similar findings for American infants 71% secure, 12% resistant, 17% avoidant and 49% avoidant for German infants but 0% in japan.

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Evaluate the study investigating the cultural variations in attachment

Rothbaum (2007) explored how American and Japanese mothers regard mother-child attachment and there were some important differences - Japanese mothers would consider emotional dependence as a positive thing.

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In today's society, what is the role of the father?

there is an increasing recognition that father’s play a much greater role in the emotional development of their children than in previous years (like Bowlby's research would suggest)

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Why has society shifted to increasing recognition in the role of the father?

here has been an increase in mothers with dependent children in work, up from 3.7million in 1996 to 4.9million in 2017. Also cultural expectations in many western cultures are changing to expect fathers to play a bigger part,

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Give evidence (research) which suggests fathers are different to mothers

Paquette (2004): fathers are more likely to engage in more physical play(more risk taking) Fathers are preferred when the child is in a positive state, whereas mothers are preferred when children are distressed and seeking comfort (Lamb 1997)

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Give one critisicm on the research suggesting fathers are different to mothers (non-supporting research)

Field (1978) found this is not because fathers aren’t as capable as mothers just that they aren’t given the opportunity to develop these skills - as primary caregiver fathers spent more time smiling with their child in the observation, like the mothers

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Give evidence that the role of the father is important in the child development

Pedersen (1980): the more actively involved a 6-month-old baby had been with his or her father, the higher the baby scored on infant development scales. Lamb (1997): characteristics of fathers are less important than the quality of the relationship

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Evaluation on the role of the father (amount of research)

There’s not enough research to make a firm conclusion – inconsistent findings as the researchers are interested in finding out different things, such as focusing on them as primary or secondary caregiver fathers.

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Evaluation on the role of the father (importance of fathers)

Some research suggests that Dad’'s arent important – MacCallum and Golombok found that children growing up in single or same sex parents found they did not develop differently than children from hetrosexual two parent families

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Evaluation on the role of the father (socially sensitive)

Research indicating gender roles may have negative results, Bowlby’s idea of monotropy lead to lots of mothers staying at home. Erica Burman states it puts a burden on mothers: It isn’t gender but sensitivity which is the key to healthy development

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Outline what research says on multiple attachments (Schaffer)

-29% of infants develop multiple attachments within a month of developing specific attachments - By 1 year, 78% have multiple attachments and 33% of the 78% have 5 or more attachments. It is the last stage of attachments

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Outline what research says on multiple attachments (Bolwby)

Monotropy –babies have one key attachment figure, (usually the mother) Secondary attachments then follow, but these multiple attachments are not as important as the attachment with the primary caregiver.

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Evaluate research on multiple attachments (unclear when attachments happen)

Some research suggests babies must form specific attachments before forming multiple.But in some cultures multiple attachments happen from the onset, suggesting research is incorrect or cultures differ.

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Evaluate research on multiple attachments (Disagreement as to the importance of multiple attachments)

Bowlby believed multiple attachments weren't as important as the primary one, but Rutter (1995) saw all attachments as equal, so no such thing as primary or secondary. All attachments give an idea of how relationships work.

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Evaluate research on multiple attachments (Economic implications)

Sagi et al (1994) saw children raised by many adults and found they were securely attached to mothers (80%). So we now know fathers and mothers can work without worrying about negative implications on the child (good for economy).

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Give an explanation of attachment (nature)

Bowlby's monotropic theory. Based on the work of Lorenz and Harlow, Bowlby proposed an evolutionary explanation of attachment. Attachment is an innate system that is biologically
programmed into babies from birth.

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Give an explanation of attachment (nuture)

Learning theory,A Behavioural explanation; focuses solely on behaviour Behaviourists suggest all behaviour and so attachment can be explained using the concepts of classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

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What is classical conditioning?

An involuntary response is associated with a stimulus. The neutral stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus which produces the unconditioned response. The two things are associated, conditioning the response and the stimulus.

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What example can you use for classical conditioning?

A dog goes to the vet, the vet is the NS. The dog is then prodded (UCS) producing fear (UCR). Next time the dog goes to the vet (now the CS), the dog is scared (CR).

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What is operant conditioning?

All humans possess primary motives and any stimuli satisfying theses drives are primary reinforcers and are positively reinforcing. The stimuli is seen as a source of reward.

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What example can you use for operant conditioning? (Positive reinforcement)

Primary drive for baby = hunger. The mother provides the food (primary reinforcer) and so reduces the drive of hunger and then becomes the secondary reinforcer. From then, the infant seeks to be with the person who has provided the food

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What example can you use for operant conditioning? (Negative reinforcement)

The caregiver is conditioned by the infant. They feed the infant, who stops crying. Feeding is repeated to avoid the infant crying. This is negative reinforcement for the caregiver.

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Outline Bowlby's monotropic theory

Attachment is an innate system that is biologically programmed into babies from birth in order to help them to survive, it is monotropic, has a critical period, proximity is seeked, there is an internal working model and social releases are important.

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What acronym can we use to remember the parts of the monotropic theory?

Cr. I .I . M. P .S, Critical period, Innate system, Internal working model, monotropy, proximity and social releasers

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What order do you write the parts of the monotropic theory in?

Innate system, monotropy,critical period, proximity, internal working model, social releasers

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What is monotropy (in the context of Bowlby's monotropic theory)?

He suggested infants have one special emotional bond, normally the biological mother, and that this relationship was different and more important than any others. The more time spent with the primary attachment figure the better.

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What is a Critical period (in the context of Bowlby's monotropic theory)?

Bowlby believed that if this monotropic attachment hadn’t occurred by the age of two then a child will have difficulty forming attachments later on in life.

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What is a proximity (in the context of Bowlby's monotropic theory)?

He believed that babies instinctively seek proximity to their principle carer (mother) for safety as it protects them from hazards; So security and secure attachment equals survival.

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What is the internal working model (in the context of Bowlby's monotropic theory)?

Individuals who are strongly attached as children are socially and emotionally competent in relationships but infants with poor attachments have more social difficulties in childhood and in adulthood (the continuity hypothesis).

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What are social releasers (in the context of Bowlby's monotropic theory)?

Social releasersare important for the development of this parent-infant attachment as they elicit caregiving from the parent. They are innate mechanisms or behaviours of babies such as; Babyfaces/cuteness, Crying, Smiling

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Evaluate the explanations of attachment (monotropic theory-supporting evidence)

monotropic theory: innate programming-instinctively went to the cloth, Monotropy-spent 22/24 hours a day with cloth, Internal working model-Some of the monkey’s found it difficult to mate, Proximity-clung to cloth when there was loud noise

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Evaluate explanations of attachment (learning theory - contradicting evidence)

Harlow’s monkey study showed the monkeys actually preferred the comfort monkey who gave no food.So shows it is not food that is the key to attachment but comfort.

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Evaluate explanations of attachment (alternative approach)

An interactionalist approach should be taken as both explanations over emphasise the importanceof nature and nurture.

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What is Institutionalisation?

It refers to the effects of growing up in an orphanage or children’s home. Often (and particularly in the past) children had so many changes of carers that it was impossible for them to form any attachments.

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What is the procedure of research that shows the impact of a child spending time in an institution?

Rutter (1998), 111 Romanian children assessed on physical and intellectual ability, height and cognitive function on arrival and again at 4. Control of 52 British adopted children assessed to see if effects due to separation or the institutional condition

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What are the findings of research that show the impact of a child spending time in an institution(arrival)?

Average IQ on arrival= 63. Adopted when over 6 mnths = 45. 51% of them were in the bottom 3%of the population for weight and they were shorter than the norm. Tested again at 4, compared to control of 52 British children, who had no negative effects

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What are the findings of research that show the impact of a child spending time in an institution(at 4)?

At 4, orphans all had improved, the average IQ from 63 to 107. Those adopted before 6 months showed no differences with the control group. Those later showed slower improvements, the IQ of those adopted after 6months, going from 45to 90.

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What do the findings of research that show the impact of a child spending time in an institution suggest?

The level of exposure to the institutionalisation has an impact on recovery, those adopted before 6 months had no significant problems. But all the orphans improved when given good subsequent care with a minority showing long term negative effects.

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Outline the findings of a study on Romanian children exposed to very severe privation and neglect in Romanian orphanages before being adopted by British families.

O’connor (2000): Late-placed adoptees (24-42 months) showed significant recovery but had much greater difficulty in achieving good cognitive development, and social development than earlier adoptees (6-24 months)

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What are the 4 patterns associated with institutional deprivation?

Kumsta (2010), 1. Quasi-autism (autism-like symptoms (social problems, obsessive preoccupations)) 2. Disinhibited attachment (lack of weariness of strangers)3.Cognitive impairment (low IQ) 4.Inattention/over activity (concentration issues)

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Summarise the effects of institutionalisation

Poor social, cognitive and physical development on arrival. But most recovered with loving care. A minority (adopted after 6 months) although improved showed there were social, emotional and cognitive issues. (4 patterns)

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Evaluate Romanian Orphan study (positive implications)

Show recovery from severe privation is possible (unlike Bowlby's suggestion that effects were irreversible), the studies are longitudinal and continuing into the future, so this is reliable research from scientific results.

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Evaluate Romanian Orphan study (variables)

Natural experiments have extraneous variables so there are difficulties in establishing cause and effect. We don't know the quality of care they received (level of privation), whether the children had special attention

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Evaluate Romanian Orphan study (applications)

Has lead to improvements in care, (Langton 2006). Children are now assigned a key worker and only one or two caregivers responsible for them so the children can develop normal attachments

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What is the internal working model?

It was suggested by Bowlby that a child’s first relationship with their primary attachment figure forms a representation for the child and this acts as a template for all future relationships.

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What is the continuity hypothesis?

The continuity hypothesiswhich isbased upon the internal working model is more specific and says that theactual attachment types of children (avoidant, resistant, secure) are also reflected in their adultrelationships.

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What perspective believes a child's internal working model is consistent over their life?

Prototype perspective: The perspective indicating the internal model has an impact on future relationships. A child’s internal working model is fairly consistent over its life and from it we can predict future relationships.

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What perspective believes a child's internal working model is not consistent over their life?

Revisionist perspective: the internal working model is revised and updated as a result of life experiences and so adult internal working models can differ hugely from infant ones. It allows for changes in patterns in relationships.

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Findings of research into child relationships (Belsky 1999)

Belsky (1999) found that 3-5 year old securely attached children were more curious, resilient, self-confident, got along better with other children and were more likely to form close relationships.

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Interpretations of research into childhood relationships (Belsky 1999)

Securely attached children have higher expectations that others are friendly and trusting and so enables easier relationships with others and closer relationships as they are prepared to be trusting and let people get close to them.

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Findings of research into child relationships (Smith 1998)

Used questionnnaires in 196 children aged 7-11 from London and found secure children are unlikely to be involved in bullying. Insecure-avoidant children were most likely victims and insecure-resistant were most likely to be bullies.

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Interpretations of research into child relationships (Smith 1998)

As securely attached children tend to be more confident (Belsky 199) they are less likely to be the target of bullies for fear that they will stand up for themselves and as they have close friendships bullies risk them having the support of other children

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What perspective does research into childhood relationships support?

The research seems to suggest that the internal working model and attachment style a child has in infancy does impact on childhood friendships and supports the prototype perspective.

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The procedure of research into adult relationships (Hazen and Shaver 1987)

620 respondents of a “love quiz” they published in the news. 205 men, 415 women; 14-82 years old, It asked questions on: most important relationship, attitudes towards love (internal WM) and attachment history (childhood attachments)

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The findings of research into adult relationships (Hazen and Shaver 1987)

Securely attached= positive internal working model .Securely attached had happy experiences, tended not to divorce, Securely attached relationships =10 yrs (average), Resistant = 5, avoidant = 6 Insecure = vulnerable to loneliness

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The intepretations of research into adult relationships (Hazen and Shaver 1987)

Supports prototype perspective. HOWEVER, methodological issues with this study.Later they found 22% of their sample changed their attachment style 1 yr and often as a result of relationship experiences (revisionist perspective).

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Evaluate explanations of attachment (ignores factors)

The learning theory is too basic, human attachment is very complex and can't be explained simply through stimulus-response or reinforcement. It ignores the importance of interactional synchrony.

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Evaluate explanations of attachment (socially sensitive)

The monotropic theory has negative implications for mothers as Bowlby's report states children need constant care from the mother for healthy psychological development, feminists state this is a terrible burden for mothers. It also undermines father

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What are the types of attachment?

Securely attached - a strong attachment resulting from sensitive responding from carer and healthy emotional development. Insecurely attached - resistant and avoidant, resulting from lack of sensitivity from carer.

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Identify the procedure of Ainsworth's and Bell's (1970) strange situation

It is a method to assess the security of an infants attachment, took place in lab, infants 12-18 mnths, their mother and a stranger. Infants observed for 20 mins as the caregiver left and returned whilst stranger remained.

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Identify the findings and conclusion of Ainsworth's and Bell's (1970) strange situation

They found: Secure Attachment =(66%) Insecure-avoidant=(22%)Insecure-resistant=(12%). Ainsworth and Bell concluded secure attachment is the most desireable as it was linked to later healthy development (emotionally)

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Evaluation of Ainsworth strange situation (research methods)

It was a controlled observation, it allows the careful recording of infants and is easily replicated. However, the artificiality of the situation may have affected the results, so we have to question the validity of it.

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Evaluation of Ainsworth strange situations (inter-rater reliability)

The study has inter-rater reliability. Different observers watching the same children tend to agree on what attachment type to classify infants as. Bick (2012) found it to be as high as 94%, so we can be confident on conclusions

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Evaluation of Ainsworth strange situations culture)

There is belief the study is culture bound as caregivers around the world may interpret behaviours differently. Takahasi (1990): Japanese mothers don't spend time apart from child so infants show very high levels of distress (seen as positive)

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What are the elements of Bowlby's theory of maternal deprivation?

1. if a mother does not have a loving continuous relationship with their child, the child would have problems forming relationships in the future 2.if separation occurs before 2.5 yrs (no sub) severe emotional consequences (critical period)

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How to remember all of the elements of Bowlby's maternal deprivation theory?

Continuous, warm mother love=Good mental health Broken, poor mother love=risk of behavioural and intellectual issues, poor internal working model Broken mother bond <2 1/2 severe risk but still risks >5

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Outline the procedure/findings of Bowlby's 44 thieves study

44 thieves, 16 diagnosed with affectionless psychopaths. 86% of 16 had prolonged separation from their mothers. None of the control group were affectionless psychopaths, and only 4% of the control group had separation

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Outline research supporting the findings of Bowlby's 44 thieves study

Spitz (1945) had visited several orphanages in South America who received very little warmth. Many suffered from anaclitic depression which was attributed to lack of emotional care.

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Attachment

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