Attachment

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What is reciprocity?
Co-ordinating their actions with caregivers in a kind of conversation. From births babies almost know to take it in turns to talk, as people do when having a conversation
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What did Brazelton suggest about reciprocity?
That this basic rhythm is an important foundation to later communications and regularity of an infant's signals allows caregiver to anticipate infants behaviour & respond appropriately
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Who conducted the first systematic study on interactional synchrony?
Meltzoff and Moore
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What did Meltzoff and Moore find?
That infants as young as 2/3 wks old imitated specific facial and hand gestures.
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How was the study conducted?
Used adult model who displayed 1 of 3 facial expressions or hand movements where fingers moved in a sequence. A dummy was placed in infants mouth during initial display to prevent responses & following display, dummy was removed & expression videoed
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What did Piaget believe about imitation?
It only develops towards being one & anything before was a response training. E.g. infant may stick tongue out as they have seen caregiver do it
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What would the consequence of imitation be?
The caregiver smiles, which child sees as rewarding, encouraging the infant to repeat the same behaviour
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What did Piaget believe replaced imitation explanation?
Infant just displayed pseudo-imitation as the infant had not consciously translated what they saw into a matching movement
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Who completed a supporting study for Meltzoff & Moore?
Murray et al
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Outline the procedure of Murray et al's study
2 month old infants fist interacted via a video monitor with their mother in real time. Video monitor played a tape of mother so image on screen was not responding to infants facial & body gestures.
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What did Murray et al find?
That the infants tried to attract their mothers interest but gaining no response that has been rewarded
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What is the first stage of the development of attachment called?
Indiscriminate attachments
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What are indiscriminate attachments?
Birth-2 months' infants produce similar responses to all objects where animate/inanimate. Towards end of period, infants start to show a greater preference for social stimuli e.g. smiling face.
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How does reciprocity and interaction synchrony play a role within this stage?
They establish the infants relationships with others
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What is the second stage of the development of attachment called?
The beginnings of attachments
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What is the beginnings of attachment?
4 months' infants become more social & prefer human company to inanimate objects & distinguish between familiar/unfamiliar people but still relatively easily comforted by anyone & show no anxiety to strangers
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What is the third stage of the development of attachment called?
Discriminate attachments
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What is discriminate attachments?
7 months' infants begin to show a distinctly different sort of protest when one person puts them down - separation anxiety. Show especial joy at reunion with that person and most comforted by that person. Form a primary attachment
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What kind of anxiety does the infant begin to display in this stage?
Stranger anxiety
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What did Schaffer and Emerson find in regards to stage 3?
That primary attachments were not always formed with person spent most time with. Observed intensely attached infants had mothers who responded quickly to their signals & offered child most interaction.
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What did Schaffer and Emerson conclude?
That it is quality of the relationship not quantity that mattered most
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What is the fourth stage of the development of attachment called?
Multiple attachments
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What is multiple attachments?
Soon after main attachment is formed, infant develops a wider circle of multiple attachments depending on how many consistent relationships they have
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What did Schaffer and Emerson find in regards to stage 4?
That within one month of being attached 29% of infants had multiple attachments to someone else. By age 1 most infants developed multiple attachments with 1/3 of infants having formed 5+ attachments
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What did Schaffer and Emerson say about role of the father as primary attachment figure?
Fathers were less likely to be primary attachment figures than mothers as they tend to spend less time with infants. Lamp reported studies have shown little relationship between father accessibility & infant-father attachment
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Why might fathers not be primary attachment figure?
Men are just not psychologically equipped to form an intense attachment due to lack of emotional sensitivity that women offer. May be due to biological/social factors
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What has research found about two-parent families where father is primary caregiver?
Both parents often share role of primary attachment figure meaning men can be primary attachment figures even if biological/social factors may discourage this
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What has research found about fathers as secondary attachment figures?
Has consistently highlighted that fathers are more playful, physical active & generally better at providing challenging situations for children.
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What does Geiger say about fathers as secondary attachment figures?
They are an exciting playmate whereas mothers are more conventional and tend to read stories to thier children
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Outline procedure of Harlows 1950 study
8 monkeys separate from mothers immediately from both & placed in cages with 2 surrogate mothers. 1 mother made of wire other covered with soft Terry towelling cloth. 4 monkeys milk from cage mother & 4 monkeys milk from cloth mother
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What did Harlow find?
All 8 monkeys tended to spend more time with cloth mother even if no milk. Monkeys who fed from wire mother only spent short amount of time getting milk then returned to cloth mother for comfort
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What happened if a frightening object was placed in the cage?
All 8 monkeys clung to cloth mother
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What do these findings suggest?
That infants do not develop an attachment to person who feeds them but person offering contact comfort
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Outline procedure of Lorenzs 1935 study
Took large clutch of geese eggs & kept them until about to hatch. 1/2 of eggs placed under goose mother, 1/2 beside Lorenz who imitated a mother ducks quacking sounds. Young birds regarded him as mother and followed him
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What did Lorenz find?
That geese follow the first moving object they see during critical period of 12-17 hrs after being hatched. Known as imprinting which suggests attachment is innate & programmed genetically
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Outline classical conditioning as a learning theory
Neutral stimulus - No response/ Unconditioned stimulus - Unconditioned response/ Unconditioned stimulus + Neutral stimulus - Unconditioned response/ Conditioned stimulus - Conditioned response
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Outline an example of classical conditioning
Mother - Infant/ Food - Happy infant/ Food + Mother - Happy infant/ Mother - Happy infant
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Who offered an explanation of OC & drive reduction theory?
Dollard & Miller
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What is a drive?
Something that motivates behaviour e.g. when an animal is uncomfortable which creates a drive to reduce this discomfort
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In the case of a hungry infant what does the drive reduce?
The accompanying discomfort
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What happens to the drive when the infant is fed?
Drive is reduced and produces feelings of pleasure & behaviour that led to being fed is likely to be repeated as it was rewarding
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What is the person who supplies the food associated with?
Avoiding discomfort & becomes secondary reinforcement
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What is social learning theory in relation to learning theory?
Hay et al suggested modelling could be used to explain attachment behaviours. They proposed children observe their parents affectionate behaviour & imitate this.
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What might parents deliberately do?
Instruct their children about how to behave in relationships & reward appropriate attachment behaviour such as giving kisses/hugs
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What are the five stages of Bowlby's monographic attachment theory?
Adaptive, Social releasers, Critical period, Monography & Internal working model
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What is adaptive in regards to Bowlby's monographic attachment theory?
According to Bowlby forming at attachment helps to ensure the survival of the child e.g. rooting, breathing, body temperature
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What is Social releasers in regards to Bowlby's monographic attachment theory?
Babies unlock an innate tendency in adults to care for them. They tend to be physical e.g. baby face features
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What is Critical period in regards to Bowlby's monographic attachment theory?
Babies must form an attachment with caregiver before 2.5 years old. Bowlby said if not child would be damaged socially, emotionally, intellectually & physically
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What is Monography in regards to Bowlby's monographic attachment theory?
Is a special intense attachment but if mother is not around then infant can form many secondary attachments that provide an important educational safety net
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What is Internal working model in regards to Bowlby's monographic attachment theory?
Through monographic attachment infant would form an IWM. All child future relationships will be based on this early attachment
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What is the first stage of the strange situation by Ainsworth?
Child & caregiver enter an unfamiliar room and caregiver sits on one of chairs & reads a magazine
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What is the second stage of the strange situation by Ainsworth?
Infant is encouraged to play/ explore - exploration and secure base behaviour
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What is the third stage of the strange situation by Ainsworth?
Stranger enters & tries to interact with infant - stranger anxiety
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What is the fourth stage of the strange situation by Ainsworth?
Caregiver leaves & stranger interacts with infant - stranger anxiety and separation anxiety
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What is the fifth stage of the strange situation by Ainsworth?
Caregiver returns and stranger leaves - exploration & secure base behaviour and response to reunion
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What is the sixth stage of the strange situation by Ainsworth?
Caregiver leaves the child alone - separation anxiety
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What is the seventh stage of the strange situation by Ainsworth?
Stranger returns and tries to interact with child - stranger anxiety
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What is the eighth stage of the strange situation by Ainsworth?
Caregiver returns and reunited with child - response to reunion
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What did Ainsworth find?
Three patterns of attachment - Secure = 65% of sample, Insecure-avoidant = 22%, Insecure-attachment = 12%
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What is a secure attachment?
Those who have harmonious & cooperative interactions with caregiver and not likely to cry when caregiver leaves room & shows some distress when left with stranger
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What is insecure-avoidant?
Tend to avoid social interaction & intimacy with others and show little response to separation & don't seek proximity of caregiver reunion
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What is insecure- resistant?
Seek & resist intimacy and social interaction and respond to separation from their caregiver with immediate & intense distress. Behave similarly towards strangers
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Outline Ijzendoorn & Kroonenbergs 1988 study
Conducted a meta-analysis of the findings from 32 studies of attachment behaviour & examined over 2,000 Strange Situation classifications in 8 countries
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What were Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg interested in?
To see whether there would be evidence that inter-cutlrual differences do exist and to find out if there were any intra-cultural differences
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What did Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg find between cultures/countries?
Differences were very small between cultures/countries. Secure attachment was most common in every country, insecure-avoidance next most common except for Israel & Japan.
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What did Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg find within cultures?
There was 1.5 greater chance of variation compared to variation between cultures
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What did Grossman & Grossman's 1991 study find?
That German infants tended to be classified as insecurely rather than securely attached which may be due to different childbearing practices.
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What does German culture involve?
Keeping some interpersonal distance between parents & children, so infants do not engage in proximity-seeking behaviours in the Strange Situation and so appear insecurely attached
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Outline Takahashi's 1990 study
Used the Strange situation to study 60 m/c Japanese infants & their mothers
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What did Takahashi find?
Similar rates of secure attachment to those found by Ainsworth et al however, Japanese infants showed no evidence of insecure-avoidance attachment & high rates of insecure-resistant attachment
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Why were Japanese infants particularly distressed when being left alone?
Because in Japan infants rarely experience separation from their mothers which would explain why they were do distressed
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Outline the 44 juvenile thieves study of Bowlby's theory of maternal deprivation
88 children, 5-16 who were referred to a guidance clinic. 44 were thieves & 16 of these were affectionless psychopaths and other 44 had not committed crimes known as control group. Bowlby interviewed children & families to create record of early life
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What did Bowlby find?
86% of affectionless psychopaths experienced prolonged attachment separation, 17% of other thieves had experienced separation & 4% of control group had experienced frequent early separation
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What do Bowlby's findings suggest?
That there is a link between early separations & later social maladjustment. Maternal deprivation appears to lead to affectionless psychopathy & antisocial behaviour
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What did Bowlby believe about a crucial period?
That a young child who is denied such care due to frequent and/or prolonged separations may become emotionally disturbed. Bowlby believed there was a continuing risk up until age of 5
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Can potential damage be avoided?
Yes if suitable substitute emotional care is provided by mother-substitute. So, separation doesn't necessarily result in deprivation
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Who completed a study of the effects of institutionalisation?
LaMare & Audet 2006
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What did they report?
Findings from a longitudinal study of 36 Romanian orphans adopted to families in Canada. Dependent variables = physical growth and health
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What did LaMare and Audet find?
Adopted orphans were physically smaller than matched control group at 4.5 but difference had disappeared by 10.5. This was same for physical health
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What do their findings suggest?
That recovery is possible from the effects of institutionalisation on physical development
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Who else completed a study of the effects of institutionalisation?
Zeanah et al 2005
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What did they compare?
136 Romanian children who on average spent 90% of their lives in an institution to a control group of other Romanian children who had never been in an institution
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What were children aged between 12 and 31 months assessed in?
The Strange situation
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What did they find?
The institutionalised children showed signs of disinhibited attachment
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What is disinhibited attachment?
A form of insecure attachment where children do not discriminate between people they choose as attachment figures
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Who was Rutter and Songua-Barkes 2010 study completed on?
165 Romanian children who spent their early lives in Romanian institutions & suffered effects of insitutionalisation
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How many children were adopted before the age of 2 and 4
111 before 2 & 54 before 4
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What happened to those adopted?
Tested at regular intervals to assess their physical, cognitive & social development. Interviews held with parents & teachers also. Progress was compared to control group of 52 British children adopted in Uk before 6 months
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What did Rutter & Songua-Barke find at the time of adoption?
The Romanian orphans were smaller, weighed less & classified as mentally retarded compared to control group
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What did Rutter & Songua-Barke find at age 4?
Some children had caught up with their British counterparts especially those adopted before 6 months but many orphans after 6 months showed disinhibited attachments & had problems with peer relationships
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What do the findings suggest?
That long-term consequences may be less serve than originally thought
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What is the role of the internal working model in regards to the influence of attachment?
IWM is similar to schema e.g. an infant learns about a relationship from experience. It's an operable model of self & attachment partner, based on joint attachment history. It's operable as it used to predict behaviour of other people in future
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Who placed a 'Love Quiz' in the Rocky Mountain News?
Hazan and Shaver in 1987
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What did the quiz ask?
Questions about current attachment experiences and attachment history to identify current & childhood attachment types. Also asked about attitudes towards love - assessment of IWM
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How many responses were analysed?
620 - 205=men/ 415=women
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What did Hazan & Shaver find when analysing self-report of attachment history?
That the prevalence of attachment styles was similar to that found in infancy. Found a positive correlation between attachment type & love experiences.
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What did they find across securely attached adults?
They described their love experiences as happy, friendly and trusting - emphasises being able to accept and support their partner despite faults
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What did they find a relationship between?
The conception of love and attachment type - securely attached individuals tended to have a positive IWM
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What did The Minnesota child-parent study find in relation to behaviours influenced by IWM?
Continuity between early attachment & later emotional/social behaviour. Individuals classified a securely attached in infancy were highest rates for social competence later in life, less isolated & more popular.
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How might childhood friendships be explained through IWM?
Securely attached infants have higher expectations that others are friendly and trusting which would enable easier relationships with others
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What did Brazelton suggest about reciprocity?

Back

That this basic rhythm is an important foundation to later communications and regularity of an infant's signals allows caregiver to anticipate infants behaviour & respond appropriately

Card 3

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Who conducted the first systematic study on interactional synchrony?

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Preview of the front of card 3

Card 4

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What did Meltzoff and Moore find?

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How was the study conducted?

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