AS Biology

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Carbohydrate Digestion
Salivary amylase hydrolysed starch to maltose by breaking glycosidic bonds, pancreatic amylase hydroloses remaining starch in small intestine, maltase hydrolyses maltose into alpha glucose
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Lipid digestion
Lipids split into micelles by bile salt in the liver - emulsification, lipases in the pancreas hydrolyse the ester bond in triglycerides forming fatty acids and monoglycerides
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Protein digestion - endopeptidases
Hydrolyse peptide bond between amino acids in central region of the protein, forming peptide molecules
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Protein digestion - exopeptidases
Hydrolyse peptide bonds in terminal amino acids of the peptide molecule, release dipeptides and amino acids
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Protein digestion - dipeptidases
Hydrolyse the bond between the two amino acids of a dipeptide
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Lactose
Galactose + glucose
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Sucrose
Fructose + glucose
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Maltose
Alpha glucose + alpha glucose
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Starch
Plants, alpha glucose, glycosidic bonds formed by condensation, branched or unbranched, energy storage = insoluble - doesn’t affect water potential, large, compact, highly branched
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Glycogen
Animals, alpha glucose, glycosidic bonds, more branched than starch, carb storage = insoluble, compact, more highly branched - animals need more energy than plants
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Cellulose
Support and rigidity in plant cell wall, beta glucose, h bonds link straight unbranched chains, lots of H bonds = strength, group to form microfibrils and fibres
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Saturated fat
Contains max amount of hydrogen, no double bonds, high melting point
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Mono-unsaturated fat
Contains one carbon to carbon double bond, can bend, low melting point
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Poly-unsaturated fat
More than one carbon to carbon double bond
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Phosphorylation
Inorganic phosphate released from ATP to lower the activation energy of a compound and make it more reactive, photophosphorylation, oxidative, substrate level
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Nucleus
Makes mRNA and ribosomes, nuclear envelope, double membrane, pores, chromatin, nucleolus
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Mitochondria
Double membrane, cristae, matrix, site of aerobic respiration, makes ATP, lots in epithelial and muscle cells
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Smooth ER
Without ribosomes, makes and stores carbohydrates and lipids, contains enzymes for detoxification
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Rough ER
With ribosomes for larger surface area, makes ribosomes
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Lysosome
Vesicle containing hydrologic enzymes, hydrolyse materials ingested by phagocytes, release enzymes by exocytosis
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Cytoplasm
Where chemical reactions occur
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Vacuole
Plant cells, fluid filled sac containing sugar, amino acids, etc.
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Cell wall
Plant cells, made of cellulose, made of murein in bacteria
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Chloroplast
Plant cell, grana - stacked thylakoid, chlorophyll absorbs light for LDR, stroma contain enzymes for synthesis of sugar - LIR, dna and ribosomes for proteins
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Ribosomes
Made of proteins and RNA, join amino acids in correct order, make peptide bonds, 80s in eukaryotic, 70s in prokaryotic
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Golgi body
Packages and transports proteins, modified proteins by adding carbohydrates, produces vesicles for exocytosis, stacks of sac - cristernae
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Water
Dipolar, hydrogen bonding, temperature buffer - stable aquatic environment, lots of energy to evaporate, sweat effective cooling mechanism, cohesive = stick together, adhesive = stick to non-like surfaces
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Interphase
G1 = Growth & normal metabolic roles, S1 = Semi-conservative replication, G2 = Growth and prep for mitosis, cell in interphase 90% of the time
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Prophase
Chromosomes condense = become visible, 2 identical chromatids connected at centromere, nucleolus disappears, centrioles at opposite poles
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Metaphase
Spindle fibres connect centrioles to chromosomes at centromere, chromosomes align along equator
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Anaphase
Centromeres split, chromosomes separate, chromatids move to opposite poles - pulled by kinesin proteins walking along microtubules
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Telophase
Spindle fibres disperse, nuclear membranes form around each set of chromatids, nucleoli form
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Cytokinesis
A ring of actin fibres form around the equator, tightens to form a cleavage furrow - cell splits in 2
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Phospholipid
Hydrophilic head, 2 hydrophobic tails, bilayer allows lipid soluble molecules to pass through but not water soluble molecules, fluid-mosaic model
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Glycolipid
Carbohydrate covalently bonded with lipid, carb acts as recognition site, helps cells attach to one another
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Channel protein
Form water filled tubes across membrane, allow water-soluble molecules through - facilitated diffusion
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Carrier protein
Bind to ions/glucose/amino acids to change shape and allow them to pass through the membrane = facilitated diffusion
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Cholesterol
Reduce lateral movement, make membrane less fluid at high temp, prevent leakage of water and ions
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Glycoprotein
Carbohydrate chain attached to extrinsic protein, recognition site, help cells attach to one another, allow lymphocytes to recognise body cells
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Absorption of glucose in ileum
Na+ actively transported out of epithelial cells into blood by SPP, higher conc of Na+ in lumen of intestine than epithelial cells, Na+ diff through co-transport protein with glucose or an amino acid, glucose/AA pass into blood via facilitated diff
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The ileum
Villi and microvilli - large surface area for absorption, thin - short diffusion pathway, large blood supply, muscular - maintain conc gradient
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Facilitated diffusion
Passive - no ATP, channel - water filled tube allows water soluble ions to pass through membrane, carrier - molecules like glucose bind and it changes shape to allow them through
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Diffusion
The net movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration until evenly distributed - down a concentration gradient
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Osmosis
The net movement of water from an area of high water potential to an area of low water potential across a partially permeable membrane, down a conc gradient
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Isotonic
WP is the same inside the cell as in the external solution, no movement of water in or out
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Hypertonic
WP higher in the external solution than inside the cell, water moves into the cell - swells and bursts
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Hypotonic
WP lower in the external solution than inside the cell, water movement out of the cell - cell shrivels
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Gas exchange in fish
Fish opens mouth - vol inc, pressure dec - water moves in down pressure grad. Mouth closes - vol dec, pressure inc - water moves out over gills down pressure grad.
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Gills
Made up of gill filaments, gill lamellae at right angles - increase surface area, thin - short diffusion pathway, good blood supply
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Counter-current flow
Blood and water flow over gill lamellae in opposite directions, blood always meets water that has a higher concentration of oxygen, oxygen always diffuses into the blood - no equilibrium
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Semi-conservative replication
DNA helicase breaks H bonds, 2 strands separate, free nucleotides bind to complementary bases, DNA polymerase makes phosphodiester bonds between nucleotides, 2 identical DNA molecules formed
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Light microscope
Cheap, easy to use, live specimen, coloured, poor resolution, 2D
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Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
Best resolution, no live specimen, high energy electron beam may destroy specimen, specimen must be thin
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Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
Better resolution than light, 3D, colour, no living specimen
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Species diversity
The number of different species and the number of individuals of each species within a community
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Species richness
The number of different species in an area at a particular time
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Gas exchange surface
Large SA/V ratio, thin - short diffusion pathway, partially permeable, concentration gradient
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Pulmonary ventilation
Pulmonary ventilation = tidal volume x ventilation rate
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Carbohydrates
Made from carbon, hydrogen, oxygen. Substrate for resp, energy store, structural, recognition site on cells
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Test for starch
Sample + iodine solution + shake = blue/black colouration
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Lipids
Made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen. Insoluble in water. Fatty, oily or waxy.
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Functions of lipids
Storage - insoluble in water, thermal insulation - fat conducts heat slowly, electrical insulation - myelin sheath, waterproofing - waxy cuticles, plasma membrane - phospholipids, digestion
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Test for lipids
Sample + ethanol + water + shake = white emulsion
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Test for protein
Sample + sodium hydroxide + dilute copper (II) sulfate = lilac
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Test for reducing sugars
Sample + benedicts + heat for 5 min = brick-red precipitate
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Test for non-reducing sugars
Sample + benedicts = no colour change. + dilute HCl + heat + sodium hydrocarbonate to neutralise + benedicts = brick-red precipitate
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Plasmid
Single circular DNA, free in cytoplasm - not bound to histones, contains antibiotic resistant gene, used in gene tech as a vector
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Capsule
Layer of slim, protects bacterial cell from phagocytosis, allows cells to attach to one another
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Flagellum
Allows motility, helps identify bacteria
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Phagocyotosis
Phagocyte surface receptors attach to chemicals on surface of pathogen, lysosomes in phagocyte migrate towards phagosome formed by engulfing bacteria, lysosomes release lysozymes into phagosome - hydrolyse bacterium, bacterium products absorbed
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B lymphocytes
Mature in bone marrow, associated with humoral immunity - involving antibodies present in body fluids or blood plasma
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T lymphocytes
Mature in thymus gland, associated with cell mediated immunity - involving body cells
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Cell mediated immune response
Phagocytosis - phagocyte places antigens from pathogen on surface - receptors on specific helper T cell fit exactly onto antigen - antigen-receptor complex causes T cell to divide by mitosis
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Products of CM immune response
Memory cells - enable a rapid response in future infections by same pathogen, more helper T cells, cytotoxic T cells - kill infected body cells by secreting proteins into them, suppressor T cell - switch off immune response
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Humoral immune response
Surface antigens of invading pathogen taken up by B cell and presented on surface, helper T cell attaches to antigen, antigen-receptor complex stimulates B cell to divide mitosis
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Products of H immune response
Plasma cells - produce and secrete the specific antibody that fits the antigen on the pathogens surface, antibody attaches and destroys antigen, B memory cells - respond rapidly to future infections (secondary immune response)
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Structure of antibody
Antigen binding site, 3 amino acids that form specific 3d shape - forms antigen-antibody complex, heavy chain - longer pp chains, light chain shorter pp chains, receptor binding site
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How antibodies kill pathogens
Agglutination - forms clumps of bacterial cells, making it easier for phagocyte to locate them, has markers that stimulate phagocytes to engulf the bacterial cells they are attached to
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Null hypothesis
Negative statement, eg: there is no difference between the observed and expected values
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Chi squared
Distinct categories, observed and expected values, if x2 is higher than critical value - reject NH - significant
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Spearman's rank
Correlation between 2 set of data, calculates R - between -1 (- correlation) and +1 (+ correlation), R is higher than critical - reject NH - significant
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Student T
Compare 2 means, if t exceeded critical - reject - significant
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Other cards in this set

Card 2

Front

Lipids split into micelles by bile salt in the liver - emulsification, lipases in the pancreas hydrolyse the ester bond in triglycerides forming fatty acids and monoglycerides

Back

Lipid digestion

Card 3

Front

Hydrolyse peptide bond between amino acids in central region of the protein, forming peptide molecules

Back

Preview of the back of card 3

Card 4

Front

Hydrolyse peptide bonds in terminal amino acids of the peptide molecule, release dipeptides and amino acids

Back

Preview of the back of card 4

Card 5

Front

Hydrolyse the bond between the two amino acids of a dipeptide

Back

Preview of the back of card 5
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