A level biology- module 2

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What is the function of nucleus?
Contains DNA which directs the protein synthesis and metabolic activities of the cell
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What is the function of the Nucleolus?
Produces ribosomes
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What is the function of mitochondria?
Cellular respiration
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What is the function of vesicles?
Storage and transport roles by transporting materials around the cell
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What is the function of lysosomes?
Breaks down waste materials
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What is the function of the cytoskeleton?
Shape and stability which hold organelles in place and controls cell movement
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What is the structure of the nucleus?
Contains DNA
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What is the structure of the nucleolus?
Composed of proteins and RNA
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What is the structure of mitochondria?
Has a double membrane: 1st one highly folded with cristae and a fluid interior with a fluid interior called a matrix, also contains DNA
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What is the structure of vesicles?
Membranous sacs with a single membrane with fluid
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What is the structure of lysomes?
Specialised vesicles that contain hydrolytic enzymes
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What is the structure of the cytoskeleton?
Microfilaments= cell movement, microtubles= shape the cell and help guide movement of organelles, intermediate fibres= mechanical strength and maintain integrity
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What is the function of the rough endoplasmic reticulum?
To synthesise and transport proteins
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What is the structure of the rough endoplasmic reticulum?
Ribosomes are bound to the surface
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What is the function of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum?
Lipid and carbohydrate synthesis and storage
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What is the function of ribosomes?
Site of protein synthesis
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What is the structure of ribosomes?
RNA molecules
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What is the function of Golgi apparatus?
Modifying proteins and packaging them into vesicles
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What is the structure of the Golgi apparatus?
Formed of asternae with no ribosomes
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What is the function of the flagella?
Enable cell mobility and detect chemical change
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What is the structure of flagella?
Two microtubules surrounded by nine pairs of microtubules arranged like a wheel (9+2) arrangement
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What is the function of cilia?
Mobile ones= to move things in cell, stationary= important function in sensory organs
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What is the structure of cilia?
Parallel microtubules slide over each other which moves the cilia
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What is the function of centrioles?
Organisation and assembly of spindle fibres during cell division
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What is the structure of centrioles?
Microtubules
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Define eukaryotic
Have a nucleus which contains genetic info and also have membrane bound organelles
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Define prokaryotic
No nucleus leaving the genetic info in the cytoplasms and do not contain membrane bound organelles
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How do organelle work together to produce and secrete proteins?
Nucleus copies gene, called mRNA, travels out the nucleus pores to ribosomes on rough ER, folds and processes protein and carried to Golgi apparatus in vesicles by cytoskeleton, Golgi process and modify protein into vesicles the membranes fuse, relea
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What is exocytosis?
When the cell surface membrane and vesicles membrane fuse and release the protein
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Define compartmentalisation
Putting things into compartments
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What is cellulose?
A complex carbohydrate
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What is the function of cellulose?
To give the cell it’s shape and allow substances to pass in and out because its freely permeable
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What does cellulose act as?
A defence mechanism
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What is a vacuole?
A membrane lined sac containing cytoplasm
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Why is the vacuole important?
So turgor is maintained so it’s contents push against the wall
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what is the vacuoles membrane called?
Tonoplast which means it’s selectively permeable
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What is the membrane like and fluid in chloroplasts called?
Double membrane and stroma
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What is the structure of the internal membrane in a chloroplast?
Flattened sacs which are joined to form granum which are joined together by Pamela to form grana
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What acc contains the chlorophyll pigments?
Grana
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What organelles do chloroplasts also contain?
Ribosomes, starch and DNA
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What is the function of chloroplasts internal membrane?
Provide a larger surface area for enzymes, protein and pig emend molecules in photosynthesis
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What shape of chromosome and how do prokaryotes form their chromosomes?
By coiling into a circular shape and form circular chromosome
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How do eukaryotes form their chromosomes?
The DNA wraps itself around histones which then super coils to form a linear chromosome inside the nucleus
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What size are ribosomes in a prokaryotic cell?
Smaller 70S
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What size are ribosomes in a eukaryotic cell?
Larger 80S
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What is the difference between the cytoskeleton in a eukaryotic cell compared to a prokaryotic cell?
Eukaryotes are more complex
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What is magnification?
How much bigger the image is
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What is resolution?
How detailed the image is
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What is the formula for magnification?
Image size divided by object size
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What is the maximum magnification of a light microscope?
1500- lowest resolution microscope
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What do laser microscopes use?
Laser beams to scan a specimen which is normally dyed with a fluorescent dye
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How do laser scanning confocal microscopes work?
The laser causes the dye to fluoresce( give off light), light then focuses through the pinhole onto a detector which generates a 3D image on a computer
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What’s the importance of a pinhole for a laser microscope?
It means out of focus light is blocked and allows us to look at objects at different depths and thick specimens
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What are the two kinds of electron microscopes?
Transmission electron microscope and scanning electron microscopes
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How does a transmission electron microscope work?
Uses electromagnets to focus a beam of electrons which is transmitted through the specimen and denser parts of the specimen absorb the electrons
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What is the limitation of a TEM?
They can only observe thin specimens
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How do scanning electron microscopes work?
Scan a beam of electrons across specimen, knocks off electrons on the specimen which gather in cathode ray tube to form image and ca be 3D
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Why are TEMs better than SEMs?
Because they give a higher resolution image
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What is the maximum resolution and magnification of a light microscope?
0.2 micrometers, times 1500
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What is the maximum resolution and magnification of TEM?
0.0002 micrometers, more than times a million
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What is the maximum resolution and magnification of SEM?
0.002 micrometers, less than times five hundred thousand
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what does an organisms size and surface area affect?
how quickly substances are exchanged
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what does a surface area to volume ratio compare?
how big the surface area is to volume
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which number should you aim to get to one in a SA:V ratio?
the volume
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why is diffusion effective for a single celled organism?
because it has a low metabolic activity, oxygen demand and carbon dioxide production as it has a large SA:V
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why isn't diffusion effective for a multi-cellular organism?
because it has a higher metabolic activity and its oxygen demands and co2 production are higher, also distance between where o2 is needed and supplied is too far for diffusion with its small SA:V ratio
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why do organisms have specialised surfaces?
to increase their surface area
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why is diffusion too slow for multicellular organisms?
the cells are too deep in the body so the distance is too great for substances to be exchanged quick enough
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What does every exchange surface have?
Good blood supply, short diffusion path, large surface area
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What are the features of the alveoli which make it a good exchange surface ?
Large surface area (50-75m), one cell thick layers, good blood supply for steep conc gradient, good ventilation fro steel diffusion gradient
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What is lung surfactant?
A thin layer of solution which keeps the alveoli inflated and reduces surface tension
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Why are smokers more likely to get an infection?
They don’t get enough oxygen so the deoxygenated blood kills the cells and stop cilia working so mucus builds up and poisonous substances with it because it’s not wiped away
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What is the trachea supported by?
Thick rings of cartilage which are incomplete so food can easily move down oesophagus behind tranche
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Why is the trachea and bronchi lined with ciliated epithelium and goblet cells?
So mucus can be secreted for trap dust and microbes and be swept away
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What is the trachea?
The main airway carrying warm clean moist air from nose to chest
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What is the bronchi ?
What the trachea divides into
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Difference between trachea and bronchi
Bronchi has smaller rings of cartilage than a trachea
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What is the structure of a bronchiole?
Walls contain small muscle which when contracts bronchioles close up so the muscles control how mich air reaches lungs
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What is the bronchiole lined with which makes gas exchange possible?
A thin layer of Flattened epithelium
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What is an alevoli made of?
Thin layer of epithetical cells with collagen and elastic fibres
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What is the importance of the elastic fibres in the alveoli?
It means they can stretch as air is drawn in and return to resting size (elastic coil of lungs)
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Mechanics of inspiration
Diaphragm flattens and contracts, external intercostal muscles contract moving ribs up and out, increasing thorax volume and reducing pressure
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Mechanics of expiration
Diaphragm relaxes returning to the dome shape, external intercostal muscles contract making ribs go down and in, elastic fibres in alveoli return to normal length, decrease thorax volume and increases pressure
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What type of process is normal expiration?
A passive process
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What is the difference in the mechanics of forceful expiration?
Internal intercostal muscles contract which forces ribs down hard and fast and abs contacts forcing diaphragm up increasing the pressure
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What are the three ways to measure lung volume?
Vitalographs, spirometer and peak flow meter
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How does a peak flow meter measure lung volume?
Measures the rate air is expelled from the lungs (used for asthma)
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How does a vitalograph measure lung volume?
Breathe in and out as quick as possible, produces graphs of amount of air breathed out and how quickly, forced exploratory volume in one second
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How does a spirometer measure lung volume ?
Breathing in makes the chamber go down and then the movement is recorded by the kymograph and then when you breath out the chamber goes up
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How is the volume of air effected if the patient breaths in and out of the spirometer for a long time?
It decreases as the oxygen is being used in respiration and the carbon dioxide is absorbed by the cow absorbed
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Where does the oxygen thing patient breathes in come from?
The spirometer chamber
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How can you avoid the danger of the patient running out of air?
Making sure there’s no leaks and a constant supply of oxygen
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Define tidal volume
Volume of air inspired and expired at rest (normally 500cm)
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Define vital capacity
Amount of air which can be inhaled after maximal expiration
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Define inspiratory reserve volume
Maximum volume of air breathed in above normal inhalation
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Define expiratory reserve volume
Extra amount of air you can force out your lungs above normal tidal volume
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Define residual volume
Amount of air left in lungs after maximal expiration
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Define total lung capacity
Sum of vital capacity and residual volume
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Define breathing rate
Number of breaths taken per minute
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Define ventilation rate
Total volume of air inhaled in one minute
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How do you work out ventilation rate?
Tidal volume times breathing rate per min
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Why can’t gases diffuse through an insects surface?
Because they have a tough exoskeleton
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How do gases leave and enter insects?
Through spiracles which are closed and opened by sphincters
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When do spiracles close?
When oxygen demand is low
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When do spiracles open?
When carbon dioxide production and oxygen demands are both Hugh
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Describe the pathway of air into an insect
Into spiracle, down tracheae, down tracheoles and respiration happens between air and respiring cells
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Why is the tracheae lined with chitin?
To keep them open and make the them impermeable so no gas is exchanged
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What are tracheoles?
Single, elongated cells which are freely permeable to gases which spread through the insect
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Why is an insects exchange system efficient?
Large surface area from no of tracheoles and tracheal fluid which limits the penetration of air
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What are the two types of ventilation which larger insects use?
Mechanical ventilation and collapsible enlarged tracheae or air sacs which act as reservoirs
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What is mechanical ventilation?
When air is actively pumped into system by muscular pumping of the thirds and abdomen which draws air in due to the change in pressure and volume in the tracheae and tracheoles
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What is collapsible enlarged tracheae or air sacs which act as reservoirs?
When an increased amount of air is moved through the system usually inflated and movements of the thorax and abdomen
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What are the three states if the insect gas exchange system?
Closed, open and fluttering
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What is the closed state of the gas exchange system?
No gases in or out of insect so the oxygen diffuses into cells and carbon dioxide is held in bodily fluids which is called bufferenig
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What is the fluttering state of the gas exchange system?
When the spiracles open and close rapidly which moves oxygen in and minimises water loss
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What is the open state of the gas exchange system?
When the spiracles are being widely opened and pumped by the thorax and abdomen when the carbon dioxide levels build up really high
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How do the gills work to get oxygen in and carbon dioxide out?
Water containing oxygen enters the mouth then travels through the gills
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What happens when the water travels over the gills?
The oxygen diffuses Into the fishes blood and the carbon dioxide back through the gills into the wate
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How does water enter the gills?
The mouth opens and the buccal cavity is lowered which increases buccal volume and decreases pressure
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Why do the operculum valves shut?
So the operculum cavity can expand to lower pressure
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How does the buccal cavity move to push water of the gills ?
It moves up to increase pressure so the water moves over the gills
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How is the water forced over the gills?
The operculum opens and sides of the opercular cavity move upwards which increases pressure to force the water over the gills and out the operculum
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How is a steady flow of water maintained over the gills?
The buccal cavity is slowly moved up
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What is the structure of a gill?
Made from filaments covered in gill plates (secondary lamellae) which are supported by gill arches
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What do gill arches contain?
Capillaries
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What is the counter current system?
Blood floes in the opposite direction to the water flow so the water flows with high o2 conc next to the blood with low conc
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What does the counter current system maximise?
Gaseous exchange
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What is transported around the body?
Oxygen, nutrients, hormones, waste and heat
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Why do we need transport systems?
High metabolic demand, low SA:Vol, very active, movement of hormones and enzymes, transport of digested food to cells, waste products
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What are the features of transport system?
Fluid/ medium, pump, exchange surface, tubes/ vessels
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Define mass transport system
When substances are transported in a mass of fluid with a mechanism for moving the fluid around
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What is an open system?
When the fluid can come out of the system , insects locusts
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What is a closed system?
When fluid stays in side the vessels, humans fish
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What are the similarities of closed and open systems?
Liquid transport medium, vessels to transport the medium, pumping mechanism to move fluid
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What are the differences of closed and open systems?
Open has few vessel and closed has a transport medium in vessels, open is pumped into body cavity (haemoceol) under low pressure and closed heart pumps blood around under high pressure, open medium directly contacts body and closed no direct contact
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What is a single circulatory system?
Blood flows through the heart once for each complete circuit of the body before returning to the heart
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Example of single circulatory system
Fish, heart pumps blood to the gills to pick up oxygen and then on through the body to deliver oxygen
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What is a double circulatory system?
Blood travels through twice through the heart for each circuit of the body
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Example of double circulatory system
Mammals, split down the middle
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Describe the route of a closed circulatory system
Blood fully enclosed within the blood at all times, diffuses and blood returns by vessels
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Describe the route for fluid in an open circulatory system
Haemolymph diffuses into haemocoel then drain back into the pump
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Card 5

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