104: Mid-Semester

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What is plate tectonics?
The theory that the earth's surface is divided into 15 plates of crust floating on a viscous semi-molten layer of mantle
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What is the Rangitata Orogeny?
A land-building period when the sediments from Antarctica overrode the trench formed by New Zealand's subduction zone and came into contact with sediments deposited by volcanic islands and Australia, resulting in the uplift of the ancestral New Zeala
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What is the lithosphere?
Plates of crust floating on a semi-molten layer of mantle
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What is the asthenosphere?
A viscous semi-molten layer of mantle on which plates of crust float
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Who proposed the hypothesis of continental drift and when?
Alfred Wegener in 1912
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What was New Zealand like 250mya?
It was part of a super-continent called Pangaea, which then split into Laurasia and Gondwana
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What was New Zealand like before 165mya?
Part of Gondwana; the site of an active subduction zone and a sub-marine dumping ground for sediments and biological debris washed offshore from west Antarctica
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When did Gondwana begin to split apart?
In the Jurassic Period, around 165mya
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When did the Rangitata Orogeny begin?
Between 140 and 110mya
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What was the Oligocene Drowning?
A period in which the newly-raised New Zealand was heavily eroded by the rain it attracted
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What was New Zealand like 65mya?
Most of the land was submerged and the remaining landmass was swampy due to the Oligocene Drowning
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What was New Zealand like 27mya?
It had separated from Antarctica and New Caledonia and moved to its present location
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What was the Kaikoura Orogeny?
A period during which much of New Zealand's landmass was lifted into the shape it is today
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When did the Kaikoura Orogeny occur?
5mya
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What two things led to the Kaikoura Orogeny?
The Circum-Antarctic Current's effect on New Zealand's weather patterns, and the formation of the Alpine Fault in the South Island
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What is the Circum-Atlantic Current?
The free-flowing current around Antarctica that formed after the continents around the Southern Hemisphere dispersed
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When did the last ice age pass?
10,000 years ago
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What does the vicariance hypothesis state?
That biota used land masses to travel, unintentionally moving with land as it travelled due to tectonic activity
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What does the dispersal hypothesis state?
That biota used other methods of travel to reach New Zealand, as well as land-based movement, including wind, currents, floating vegetation, etc
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What plant fossils have been found from New Zealand?
Glossopteris, mosses and ferns from the Jurassic and Cretaceous Periods
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What trees from New Zealand can be found adapted on other continents?
Norfolk pines, kauri, kahikatea, totara, and rimu
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Why are ferns thought to have traveled to New Zealand through vicariant dispersal?
They are prone to dessication and so cannot travel across water
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Why are conifers thought to have traveled to New Zealand through vicariant dispersal?
Their heavy seeds neither fly nor float, and are intolerant to salt water
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Why are flowering plants thought to have traveled to New Zealand through vicariant dispersal?
New Zealand's earliest flowering plant, Nothofagus, require continuous land and cannot cross salt water
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What animals are thought to have traveled to New Zealand through vicariant dispersal?
Velvet worms, kauri snails, moa, wrens, tuatara, and freshwater mussels
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What marine animals have been discovered from the Jurassic and Cretaceous Periods?
Fossils of cephalopods, ichthyosaurs, pleisiosaurs, and mosasaurs
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Who discovered the remains of terrestrial dinosaurs in Hawke's Bay and when?
Joans and M. A. Wiffen in the early 1980s
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What animals are thought to have traveled to New Zealand through disperal methods?
Tui, kiwi, wattlebirds, huia, and the short-tailed bat
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Which parts of New Zealand have high endemism?
Otago, Southland, north-west Nelson, and Northland
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What two things led to the high levels of endemism in New Zealand?
Either the uplift of the Southern Alps by tectonic activity created species isolation, or glaciation during the Pleistocene was harsh and killed large swathes of the country, causing extinctions
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How many endemic species of wren survive and what are they?
Two; the rock wren and the rifleman
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What are the three important questions for societies?
Where do we come from, where are we going, how do we ensure our survival?
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Why are birds heavily affected by human colonisation?
Because many species lose the power of flight as they diversify, and this leaves them susceptible to predation
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What are the four effects of human colonisation on New Zealand?
Unrestrained exploitation; die-down of easily obtained resources; extinction and ongoing environmental modification; climate change
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What were the first impressions of New Zealand upon colonisation by Maori?
Apparently unlimited land and forest; apparently unlimited protein sources; apparently unlimited water
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What were secondary impressions of New Zealand upon colonisation by Maori?
Difference in temperature; longer twilights; a greater landmass; difference in tidal patterns; slightly altered species
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Which species were introduced by Maori?
Taro, uwhi, aute, hue, and kumara
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What traits do kumara have?
They have origins in the tropical Americas, are perennial, and usually don't flower below a latitude of 30, and are normally cultivated using clippings in the Pacific
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What did settlers have to do to establish kumara?
Cultivate it as an annual, recognise dormancy and develop vegetative propagation from tubes, and control the microclimate
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How did settlers control the microclimate for kumara growth?
Develop effective storage methods, maximise the available growing season, protect against disease and rot
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What traits evolve in bird adaptive radiation?
Giantism, flightlessness, predominantly bird predators, food specialisation, obligate forest-dwelling, ground nesting
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How did Maori clearage of forest affect bird species?
20-30% were wiped out, including 10-12 species of moa and 7 species of freshwater bird
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What species were marginalised by Maori colonisation?
Ground-nesting seabirds, tuatara, lizards, snails, frogs, giant weta
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What factors contributed to extinction after Maori colonisation?
Habitat loss through forest clearning, loss of prey through habitat change, hunting, the introduction of the dog and kiore, climate change
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What effects did the little ice age have?
Economic and environmental decline, forced diet shifts, episodes of malnutrition, reduced ability to respond to cooling climate, land abandonment and internal migration
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What is world view?
The sense of existence as a person, a family, or a society, that provides a framework for generating, sustaining, and applying knowledge
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How do European and Maori views on the environment differ?
European society is underpinned by Christianity, which states humans are above other creatures; Maori society is based on living in harmony in order to survive
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What European species are used in cultural harvests?
Mallard and other ducks, deer, trout, salmon, wild pig
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What Maori species are used in cultural harvests?
Toheroa, spiny lobster, paua, kereru, kina, kahawai
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What is the intertidal?
The region between the highest high tide and the lowest low tide on a shore
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What is a community?
A recognisable assemblage of plants and animals in a given time and place
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What are three physical factors?
Substrate, temperature, exposure
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What are three biological factors?
Competition, predation, resistance to dessication
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What strategies can organisms use to survive?
Behavioural strategies and physiological strategies
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What are the upper limit and lower limit of a zone set by?
Physical and biological factors respectively
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What area of the intertidal zone do barnacles occupy?
The top and middle areas of the mid intertidal
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What are the upper and lower limits for barnacles set by?
Resistance to dessication and feeding time; competition and predation
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How do oyster borers predate?
By alternating periods of chemical dissolution and radular rasping to drill a hole, then injecting digestive enzymes and paralytic agents
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What alters patterns of zonation?
Shallow sloping or flat shore; non-uniform substrate; degree of wave action; shifting sands
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What three types of ocean substrate are there?
Soft sediment, rock reef/kelp, and coral reef
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What physical factors affect kelp communities?
Water, light, and substratum
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What allows kelp to grasp onto substrate?
Their holdfast
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Are fucaleans or laminarians smaller?
Fucaleans
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What and where is a 'kelp forest'
10-20m under the sea, the low wave action allows kelp to grow very long, thus the name 'kelp forest'
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What do echinoids do?
Feed on kelp
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What are kina?
Sea urchins that consume kelp and are eaten by predatory fish
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Why are gastropods typically found deeper than amphipods or isopods?
Because they struggle to hang onto kelp and wave action is detrimental
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Do amphipods prefer wide or thin thalluses?
Thin, because they are laterally flattened and so can only secure to thin surfaces
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Do isopods prefer wide or thin thalluses?
Wide
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What is an important food source for soft sediment communities?
Detritus
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Are mature or juvenile communities more likely to bounce back from disturbances, and why?
Juvenile, because mature communities are more settled
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What is the pelagic zone?
A column of water away from the coast and just above the sea floor
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What is the epipelagic zone?
The top 200m of the pelagic zone
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Why is the epipelagic zone also called the photic zone?
Because it is the lightest and warmest zone of the ocean
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What sort of species exist in the epipelagic zone?
Only ones that can float or swim, as there is nothing to attach to, hide behind, or dig into
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Where are New Zealand's most productive waters?
Where warm currents meet cold currents
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What are phytoplankton?
Unicellular microscopic plants that carry out photosynthesis
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What are holoplankton?
Phytoplankton that are planktonic for their entire life cycles
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What are some examples of holoplankton?
Diatoms, radiolarians, krill, copepods, salpo
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What are meroplankton?
Phytoplankton that are planktonic for only part of their life cycle, usually the larval stage
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What are some examples of meroplankton?
Echinoderms, crustaceans, marine worms, fish
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What are diatoms made of and how do they reproduce?
Silica frustules; sexually and asexually
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What are dinoflagellates made of and how do they reproduce?
Cellulose plates; cell division
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What are the two important types of herbivorous zooplankton?
Copepods and planktonic salps
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Describe copepods
They are the most dominant form of herbivorous zooplankton; form 70% of the zooplankton community; reproduce sexually; form feeding currents with their limbs to get phytoplankton swirling
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Describe planktonic salps
They are gelatinous-bodied turnicates; free-floating and pump water through their bodies to filter-feed; can reproduce asexually (oozoid) or sexually (blastoozoid)
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How much energy is transferred from one food level to another?
10%
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How do zooplankton influence a feeding environment in the Kaikoura trench?
By ascending from around 100m depth to 100-200m at night, creating an environment for zooplankton, fish, squid, dolphins, and birds
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What adaptations do non-swimming epipelagic organisms have?
They either increase water resistance or buoyancy
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How do organisms increase their water resistance?
By increasing surface area
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How do organisms increase their buoyancy?
By storing lipids and gases to generate lift
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What adaptations do epipelagic fish have?
They are streamlined for drag minimisation and have powerful musculature in their tails and internal body
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Name two epipelagic fish
Tuna and laminids
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What are floaters and name some examples
They live at the air/water interface; velella (gas-filled sacs), glavicus (swallow air; feed on velella), halobates (surface tension)
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How do different epipelagic organisms camouflage?
Gelatinous zooplankton through transparency, fish and cephalopods through counter-shading and reflective surfaces, and other organisms through bioluminesence
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What habitats are present in the deep sea?
Mesopelagic, bathypelagic, abyssopelagic, and hadopelagic
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How do organisms in the deep sea acquire nutrients?
Through detritus sinking from above, or hydrothermal vents
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What is the average temperature of the deep sea?
4 degrees C
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What are pressures in the deep sea?
3000-9000pi
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What general adaptations do deep sea organisms have?
They have slow metabolic rates to cope with the low temperature, flatter bodies to deal with pressure, and are adapted to utilise infrequent food sources
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What adaptations do mesopelagic fish have?
Elongated eel-like bodies, weak skeletons, watery muscles, extendable hinged jaws, re-curved teeth, and rod-dominated eyes on the top of their heads
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What fish has infrared vision?
The stoplight loose-jaw
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What body types do organisms in the mesopelagic zone have?
Laterally compressed bodies, to reduce their silhouettes for camouflage
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What are photophores?
Areas where bioluminescence can be observed
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Name some features of the Kermadec Trench
It is over 10km deep; has over 50 submarine volcanoes; has high species diversity
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What are the primary producers in hydrothermal vent communities?
Chemosynthetic bacteria, which transfer hydrogen sulfide into chemical energy
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Describe the tube worm
It has a plume rather than any digestive system, which it uses to exchange oxygen with the surrounding water using specialised haemoglobin; it houses chemosynthetic bacteria that feed it sugars; it is an extremophile
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How many species are commercially harvested in New Zealand waters?
Over 130
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What four measures make up the harvest strategy standard?
Soft limit, hard limit, management target, and overfishing threshold
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What is the soft limit?
The biomass level below which a stock is overfished or depleted and needs to be rebuilt
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What is the hard limit?
The biomass level below which a stock is collapsed, fishery closure needed urgently to rebuild stock
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What is the overfishing threshold?
Rate of extraction that, if exceeded, will lead to stock biomass decline below management targets
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What is the management target?
The biomass level that stocks are expected to fluctuate around
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What percentage of stocks is overfished?
17%
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What stocks are overfished?
Southern bluefin tuna, black cardinalfish, bluenose, orange roughy, scallop, rock lobster, paua, snapper
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What are the three types of management control?
Input controls constrain the amount of fishing effort; technical controls limit various aspects of fishing gear; output controls limit the amount of fish that can be caught over a period of time
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What are the fundamental elements of fishery management systems?
Compliance, research, and allocation
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What is the TAC?
Total allowable catch
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What does the TAC consist of?
The total allowable commercial catch (TACC) and total allowable non-commercial catch (TANC)
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What does the TANC consist of?
Recreational fisheries and customary fisheries
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Describe snapper
Found across New Zealand; are inshore demersal fish; spawn from October-February; mature at 3-5 years; live to 30-50 years; like seagrass beds; been commercially important since the 1930s; had a steep population decline
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What fishing methods led to the decline of snapper?
Overseas fishing companies used bottom trawling, pair trawls, bottom longlines, and Danish seines to catch vast numbers
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Describe the orange roughy
Are widespread in deep water; distributed around New Zealand; very slow-growing fish; live to 120 years; are only sexually mature at 30 years; have low fecundity; poorly understood; stocks collapsed in the 1990s
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What fishing methods led to the decline of orange roughy?
Unregulated harvesting, poor knowledge, rapid development of the industry, targeting of dense spawning aggregations, boom-net trawling (destruction of habitat)
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What is filming technology called under the sea?
Baited underwater video (BUV)
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Other cards in this set

Card 2

Front

A land-building period when the sediments from Antarctica overrode the trench formed by New Zealand's subduction zone and came into contact with sediments deposited by volcanic islands and Australia, resulting in the uplift of the ancestral New Zeala

Back

What is the Rangitata Orogeny?

Card 3

Front

Plates of crust floating on a semi-molten layer of mantle

Back

Preview of the back of card 3

Card 4

Front

A viscous semi-molten layer of mantle on which plates of crust float

Back

Preview of the back of card 4

Card 5

Front

Alfred Wegener in 1912

Back

Preview of the back of card 5
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