Wellington's Role in defeating the French

• In 1807, a French army under Junot Marched through Spain and seized control of Portugal.
• In 1808, French troops poured into Spain.
• In April 1801, Napoleon 'persuaded' the Spanish King to abdicate. 
• Napoleon who had assumed there would be little opposition to Joseph Bonaparte, he was wrong.
• By June 1808, the whole of Spain was up in arms. Local assemblies-juntas-emerged and began to raise forces.
• Junot, in Portugal, was now totally cut off from France. 
• In mid-June 1808 rebellion broke out at Oporto and quickly spread.
• The British Government realised that the situation in Spain offered a wonderful opportunity to strike a blow against Napoleon.

Portugal 1808:

• A force of 9,000 men was already assembling at Cork to attack Venezuela, a Spanish colony. Castlereagh now ordered this force, commanded by Wellesley, to sail to the Iberian Peninsular. Wellesley's transport left Cork on 12th July 1808.
• On August 1st British forces began disembarking at Mondego Bay.
• Wellesley's army was soon reinforced with 5,000 men and a further 15,000 also prepared to set sail from Britain.
• The Duke of York decided that it must be commanded by a General senior in rank to Wellesley, due to the size of the force. These 3 senior officers were, Sir John Moore, Sir Hew Dalrymple and Sir Harry Burrard.

• On 20th August Sir Harry Burrard arrived of Maceira but decided to sleep on board ship. Wellesley was informed that Junot was advancing towards him with 14,000 men.
• Wellesley prepared for the battle, positioning his army on high ground. 
• Wellesley's light infantry held Junot's tirailleurs at bay. 
• On reaching the crest of the hill, the French columns were shot to pieces by musket fire and fled as British troops advanced.
• At this point Burrard arrived at the field, but allowed Wellesley to continue.
• Further French attacks on Vimeiro hill, Vimeiro village and a ridge to the north were driven back.
• Wellesley begged Burrard to pursue the beaten French, but Burrard refused.
• The French lost some 2,000 men;Britain 720.

The Convention of Cintra:

• Dalrymple accepted Junot's offer of an armistice, agreeing that the 24,000 French soldiers in Portugal should be transported back to France on British ships.
• In December 1808, a military enquiry into the Convention concluded that nothing had been done which called for the punishment of any party concerned.

• Commanding a 35,000 strong army, his orders were to co-operate with the Spanish in expelling the French from Spain. Moore marched into Spain with the bulk of his army in October 1808. 10,000 men were left in Lisbon.
• Meanwhile another 10,000 strong force, commanded by Sir David Baird, landed at Corunna in mid-October. These two armies were to combine at Salamanca.
• Napoleon with 200,000 troops had crossed into Spain in November. Moore realised that his best option was to retreat to Portugal.
• Moore decided to strike North-East towards Burgos.
• It was a huge gamble but Moore thought 'something must be risked for the honour of the service'.
• Moore's army left Salamanca on 12-13 December. 
• The closest French troops were 20,000 men under Soult whom Moore hoped to defeat. On 20th December Moore and Baird joined forces. 
• On 23rd December Moore had little option but to order a retreat through the Galician mountains to Corunna.
• Morale had dropped, nevertheless, the rear-guard, which included the 95th rifles prevented the French getting too close.
• Moore reached Corunna on 11th January 1809.
• By midday on 16th January most of the wounded and the artillery were on-board the troop transports.
• Some 15,000 troops held their position against a similarly sized French force. Both sides lost approximately 700-900 men. The battle enabled the British to embark and return to England. Some 26,000 men escaped and 7,000 men had been lost on the retreat.

• However Wellesley stipulated that Portugal's defence must involve: The dispatch of at least 20,000 British troops to Portugal and The Portuguese Army's reorganisation along British lines.
• Soult, with 20,000 men had invaded Portugal from the north, capturing Oporto on 29th March. Marshal Victor, with 40,000 men threatened Lisbon from the east
• Leaving 12,000 men to defend Lisbon, he marched north with 16,000 British and 2,400 Portuguese. 
• Soult believed that Wellesley would be unable to cross the River Dour. But on 12th May Wellesley ferried men across the river in a few wine barges. Before Soult had realised the danger, some 600 British troops had occupied a seminary building.
• Portuguese civilians now rushed down to the waterside and launched everything that would float, enabling more British troops to cross the Duoro. 
• Pursued by Wellesley, Soult managed to escape back into Spain through difficult mountains, in doing so he lost over 4,000 men, most of his guns and masses of equipments, however Wellesley had only sustained fewer than 200 casualties, allowing him to turn and attack Victor.

• Lack of money, shoes and supplies slowed Wellesley's next move. But the situation seemed more favourable: War between France and Austria broke out in 1809 and the 280,000 French troops in Spain were widely dispersed.
• In early June 1809, Wellesley's 20,000 strong army crossed into Spain, combined with 34,000 Spanish troops led by General Cuesta, and marched to attack Victor at Talavera.
• Victor strengthened with Troops from Madrid, now led 50,000 men towards the Anglo-Spanish force. On 27th July, the armies engaged at Talavera. Two thousand Spaniards, frightened by their own gunfire, fled.
• On 28th July, Victor launched a massive assault. Throughout the day Wellesley's line held the French columns at bay. 
• The French then retreated. They had suffered 7,300 casualties, the British 5,400.
• Cuesta proposed that the allied armies should march on Madrid. But Wellesley had lost all faith in Cuesta and declined. He became Viscount Wellington
• All Wellington could do was remain on the defensive, particularly after two Spanish armies were crushed by the French in November. In December he retreated back into Portugal.
• By mid 1810 some 25,000 Portuguese were ready for action, almost doubling the size of Wellington's force.
• In January and February a French army of 60,000 marched through Andalusia, capturing Seville.

• Instead of leading the invasion himself, he appointed Marshal Massena, one of his best soldiers to command the 138,000 strong Portuguese army.
• In May, French forces besieged Cuidad Rodrigo. 
• Wellington urged to march to its assistance was not willing to risk his army.
• On the 10th July it surrendered. 
• Massena now moved on Almeida. This surrendered on 28th August after a lucky French shot blew up Almeida's gunpowder.
• Portugal was to be defended by a scorched-earth policy and by the activities of the Ordenanza.

• In September 1810 Massena, with 65,000 men, advanced towards Coimbra.
• Wellington with 51,000 men, took up a strong position on Busaco, blocking the main road.
• The French attack on 27th September failed, with the French suffering 4,600 casualties, Wellington only 1252.
• Having occupied and looted Coimbra, Massena advanced south, confident that he was going to drive the British into the sea. Some 4,500 sick and wounded Frenchmen were captured by Portuguese militia.
• In October, his forces had reached the best kept secret of the war- the lines of Torres Vedras.

The lines of Torres Vedras

• A network of formidable defences some 20-30 miles north of Lisbon.There were three defensive rings.
• The 26 mile most northern line, ran from the Atlantic to the river Tagus, consisted of linked forts and earthworks covering the passes through to Lisbon.
• The Royal Navy protected the Atlantic Flank and gunboats on the Tagus made it hard for the French to cross. A second stronger-line of defences was built behind the first. A third line would protect the British Army if it was forced back to Lisbon and had to escape from Portugal. Behind the lines there were 500 square miles of safe territory for 200,000 Portuguese refugees. The lines of Torres Vedras were manned by 25,000 Portuguese Militia, 11,000 Ordenanza, 8,000 Spanish troops and 2,500 British artillerymen and marines. Wellington's main army, nearly 60,000 strong, was deployed behind the lines .
• By February 1811 over 500 French soldiers were dying each week. In March Massena had retreated back to Spain. He had lost between 20,000-30,000  men  and immense quantities of guns and equipment.

Fuentes de Onoro, 3rd May 1811:

• Massena advanced towards Almeida with over 48,000 men. Allied troops repelled an attack on Fuentes de Onoro. Two days later Massena attacked again. . Lacking ammunition Massena retreated. Massena was now replaced as French Commander by Marshal Marmont.

Albuera, 18th May:

• Beresford besieged Badajoz in the south. Soult with 24,000 men, set out to relieve the fortress. . Soult looked set to triumph, but a critical moment 3,700 allied troops held up 7,800 French Infantry. A British advance finally broke French resistance and Soult withdrew, having lost some 8,000 men, with Britain suffering 5,963 casualties.

Cuidad Rodrigo and Badajoz:

• In 1812, Wellington, equipped with siege guns from Britain, determined to capture Cuidad Rodrigo and Badajoz, the northern and southern ways into Spain. Wellington besieged Cuidad Rodrigo , his guns making two breaches in the fortress walls. On the night of 19-20 January Wellington's men stormed the town capturing it in two hours.
• Wellington now moved against Badajoz. Wellington with 60,000 men, reached the fortress in mid-March. 
• On April 6th the walls of the town were breached in three places and he ordered an assualt. 
• Badajoz had to be taken quickly as Marmont was threatening Cuidad Rodrigo and Wellington needed to return north to protect the town.  The British attackers lost nearly 5,000 men but succeeded in capturing Badajoz.
• After finally bringing his army under control, Wellington moved north to stop Marmont's advance on Cuidad Rodrigo.

• French forces in Spain were weakened by Napoleon's campaign against Russia in 1812,.
• While 230,000 French troops remained in Spain, most were employed in holding down the country.
• Thus in mid-June 1812, Wellington advanced towards Salamanca with 48,500 men. Marmont's similar sized army fell back.
• On 22nd July, Wellington struck at Marmont's over-extended army. The attack spearheaded by British cavalry, was a triumph. Having lost 14,000 men the French fled, the allied casualties stood at 5,214.

Advance and Retreat:

• Wellington entered Madrid triumphantly on 12th August 1812. 
• Hoping to push back enemy troops into France he continued to push northwards, reaching Burgos in mid-September. The defences were much stronger than he expected and he failed to capture the place.
• On 21st October he abandoned Burgos and began to retreat. Wellington continued his retreat to Portugal, his army- wet fatigued and hungry. In late November he reached Almeida and safety. Even though it ended in failure he had managed to achieve a great deal: He had forced the French to abandon southern Spain and he had captured huge quantities of enemy material.
• Morale amongst British troops quickly improved as new clothes and shoes arrived, as well as British and Portuguese reinforcements.
• It was clear that Napoleon had suffered a disaster in Russia, losing tens of thousands of men on the retreat from Moscow.

• In May 1813 Wellington now in command of the Spanish as well as British and Portuguese forces, determined to strike out for the Pyrenees.
• His 80,000 strong army advanced 300 miles in less than 30 days. 
• French forces fell back in confusion.
• Spanish guerrillas ensured that Wellington new more about the whereabouts of the French armies than the French did themselves.
• On 21st June Wellington attacked Joseph Bonaparte's 66,000 strong army at Vitoria. 
• The assault went to plan and the French having lost 8,000 men, retreated in panic.
• Joseph Bonaparte had abandoned 3,000 convoy wagons, carriages and carts and all but two of his 153 guns.
• News of Wellington's victory resounded across Europe.

• By the end of June 1813 Wellington had driven French forces back across the Pyrenees.
• Only three enemy pockets remained in north-eastern Spain: the town of Vera and the fortresses at San Sebastian and Pamplona.
• Vera fell by mid-July.
• As Wellington prepared to storm San Sebastian, Soult moved against him with some 80,000 me. Given that Wellington's forces were besieging two forts 40 miles apart, he was in a weak position.
• Outnumbered allied forces held up the French at Maya on 25th July. 
• At Sorauren, on July 28th  , Wellington's 18,000 men stood firm against 30,000 French. 
• A second battle in Sorauren area on 30th July ended in British victory.
• Soult retreated into France. His nine day offensive had cost him 13,500 men; Wellington had lost only 7,100.
• On 31st August allied troops stormed San Sebastian, suffering 3,700 casualties, there was then a lull in fighting: Pamplona continued to hold out until 25th October, Wellington had problems with the Spanish government and Wellington was reluctant to invade France until he was certain of the situation in Germany.

• On 7th October allied troops crossed the River Bidasoa, breaking the French line of defence and establishing a bridgehead in France.
• At the battle of the Nations, fought at Leipzig on 16-19th October, Napoleon was decisively defeated and forced to retreat to the river Rhine.
• On 10th November British troops took strong French positions and crossed the River Nivelle.
• Allied casualties were 2,625; French losses 4,350. 
• Wellington now sent most of his Spanish Battalions back over the Pyrenees. As he thought that the Spanish troops would go seeking revenge for the plundering in Spain.
• This would've set the civilians against the allies, a situation in which Wellington wanted to avoid.
• On December 9th allied troops forced their way across the River Nive.
• In February 1814 Wellington pressed north as Soult retreated.
• In April allied and French troops fought a needless battle at Toulouse.
• Unknown to Wellington, coalition forces had entered Paris on 31st March and Napoleon had abdicated a week later. Wellington had fought a remarkable campaign.
• His army, with Britain's contribution never exceeding 40,000 men had killed wounded or captured over 200,000 enemy troops, losing only 36,000 men in the process.

• In February 1815, Napoleon escaped and sailed back to France. With a small amount of army and recruiting men on the way, Napoleon marched to Paris, where Louis the 18th fled.  Opposed by Britain, Russia, Austria and Prussia, he sought to win a major victory that would shatter the adversaries' morale. While the bulk of the Austrian and Russian forces were still massing on France's eastern border , he advanced northwards towards the British and Prussian armies, hoping to annihilate each separately.

Lingy and Quatre Bras:

• Wellington commanded an Anglo-Belgian-Dutch-Hanoverian army, some 90,000 strong.
• Unfortunately for him most of Britain's Peninsular war veterans were crossing the Atlantic after fighting with America. Marshall Blutcher commanded a Prussian force of similar size to Wellington's. The two forces occupied southern Belgium, with Wellington's troops in the west and Blutcher's in the east.
• On June 15th  , the 120,000 strong French army thrust northwards, taking both of them by surprise.
• On July 16th  , Napoleon defeated the Prussians at Lingy.
• Wellington's army, attacked by Marshal Ney, clung on to the crossroads at Quatre Bras.
• While Blutcher had been badly mauled, Napoleon had failed to crush either of his adversaries. 
• Sending a third of his army, under Marshall Grouchy, to pursue the Prussians, Napoleon marched against Wellington.

• The French pursuit was hampered by heavy rain, which continue throughout the night of 17-18 June. 
• Napoleon postponed his attack until 11:30 am, to give the earth some time to dry.
• Unfortunately for Napoleon, this gave the 72,000 Prussians to the right of the flank to reach the battlefield.
• But for a few hours 75,000 French confronted Wellington's hybrid force of 68,000 men.
• By 1:30 pm Blutcher's troops had begun arriving on the battlefield, forcing Napoleon to divert the bulk of his reserves to starve of the threat.
• French Cavalry, unsupported by infantry , failed to break Wellington's centre in a series of reckless charges.
• The last French attack came from the infantry of the Imperial guard. This unit was similarly repulsed. With the Prussians advancing Wellington ordered his own army forward. The French army fled the field. Within days Napoleon had abdicated for a second time. 
• The Battle of Waterloo as Wellington conceded, had been 'a close run thing'. His army suffered over 15,000 casualties and Blutcher's 7,000 with French casualties standing at 25,000. 

• The British Army- By 1813 it was clear the British army surpassed the French's in everything but numbers.
• Portuguese and Spanish troops- Once they were put under British command they showed great courage and endurance.
• The Royal Navy- Supported the army, conveying supplies and transporting troops.
• The geography of the peninsular- Enabled Britain to use its maritime power to enormous effect.
• The British Government- The Tory administrations of Portland, Perceval and Liverpool had the will and found the means to support Wellington's armies.
• The strength of the economy- Underpinned the entire British war effort.
• Coalition support- Without the assistance of Russia, Prussia and Austria, it is hard to see how Britain could have won the peninsular war.