Language Acquisition

PLOSIVE:

• Created when airflow is briefly stopped.

Voiced:    Unvoiced:

FRICATIVE:

• Created when airflow is partially blocked and air moves through the mouth in a steady stream.

Voiced:    Unvoiced:

AFFRICATIVE:

• Created by putting plosives and fricatives.

Voiced:    Unvoiced:

APPROXIMANTS:

• Similiar sounds to vowels.

Voiced:    Unvoiced:

NASAL:

• Created by air moving through the nose.

Voiced:    Unvoiced:

LATERAL:

• Created by placing the tongue on the ridge of teeth and then air moving dow  the side of the mouth.

Voiced:    Unvoiced:

Deletion: ("do'" for dog, "cu'" for cup)

• Omitting the final consonant (letter) in words.

Substitution: ("'pid" for ship)

• Replacing one sound with another.

Addition: ("doggie" for dog)

• Adding an extra vowel soubd to the ends of words, creating a CVCV sound.

Assimilation: ("gog'" for dog)

• Changing a consonant or vowel for another (such as the early plosive sounds "d" and "p").

Reduplication: ("dada", "mama")

• Repeating a whole syllable.

Consnant cluster reductions: ("'pider" for spider)

• As these can be difficult to say, children reduce them to small units.

Deletion of unstressed syllabes: ("'nana" for banana)

• Omitting the opening syllable in polysyllabic.
  

Sensorimoter: (up to 2 years old)

• Children experience the physical word via their senses.

Begin classifying things in:

• Lexical choice
• When they appear (tend to be concrete rather than abstract)
• The idea that things exist when out of sight behins to occur to the children).

Pre-operational: (2-7 years old)

• Language and motor skills develop.

Language is either:

• Focused on the child or used by the child when no-one is around.

Concrete opefation: (7-11 years old)

• Children bwgin thinking logically about concrete events.

Formal operation: (11+ years old)

• Abstract reasoning skills to develop.

One-word/Holophrastic: (12-18 months)

• one word utterance.

Two-word: (18+24 months)

• two words combined to create simple syntactical structures (subject+verb, verb+object)
  

Telegraphic:  (24-36 months)

• three or more words joined in accurate orders (subject+verb+object, subject+verb+complement, subject+verb+adverbial)

Post-telegraphic: (36+ months)

• awareness of grammatical rules and irregularities (saying "ran" instead of "runned")

AGENT + ACTION

Did someone (the do-er) perform an action?

"Daddy kick"

Dad kicks ball.

-

AGENT + AFFECTED

Does someone do something to an object (done-to)?

"Me ball"

Child kicks ball

Vegetative: (0-4 months)

• sounds of discomfort or reflexive actions
• crying, coughing, burping, sucking
  

Cooing: (4-7 months)

• comfort sounds
• vocal play
• grunts + sighs become vowel-like "coo"s
• laughter starts
• hard consonants + vowel produced 
• pitch (squeals + growls) and loudness (yells) practised

Babbling: (6-12 months)

• extended sound sounding like syllanle sequences.
  

• repeated patterns
• sounds linking to mother tongue. 
  
• Reduplicated (variegated) e.g. "agu" 

Proto-words: (9-12)

• word-like vocalisations 

• repetition
• higher pitch
• usage of childs name rather tban pronouns
• present tense speech
• yes/no questions
• one-word utterances
• exaggeeated pauses to express turn-taking

NATIVIST: (Noam Chumsky, Eric Lenneburg)

• humans have an inbuilt capacity to learn language

BEHAVIOURIST: (B.F Skinner)

• language is learnt via imitation and reinforcement
  

SOCIAL INTERACTIONIST: (Jerome Bruner, Lev Vygotsky)

• children learn language via Iinteraction with adults

COGNITIVE: (Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget)

• language acquisition is part of a wider development of understanding that develops

Noam Chomsky + Eric Lenneburg

FOR:

• develop at the same pace as ordinary
  
• resist correction
• create their own form of language not used by adults
• show understanding that languages have grammatical rules by creating their own rules

AGAINST:

• stop overgeneralising and begin to learn language correctly
• need input to give them more skills than grammar
• children deprived of social interaction/contact can't acheive complete communicative competence

B.F SKINNER

FOR:

• imitate accent + dialect
• learn politeness + pragmatics aspects of language)
• repeat language around them and put into their own language

AGAINST:

• don't respond to correction
• corrections may slow down development
• imitate but fail to understand meanings
• can learn correct grammatical language even when surounded with ingrammtical language

Jerome Bruner + Lev Vygotsky

FOR:

• routines teach children of turn-taking
• role play suggests that more interactions with carers can affect vocabulary
•  pragmatic develop suggests children learn politeness and verbally accept behaviour

AGAINST:

• children from cultures that don't promote child-adult interactions can stillbe articulate without the help of an adult
  

Lev Vygotsky + Jean Piaget

FOR:

• can't grasp aspects of language until they are ready (supported by the stages of development)
• produce utterances with increasing in complexity, woring towards mastering a rule
•  

AGAINST:

• children can sill use language beyond heir understanding
• acquire language without any understanding of it (mainly in the early stages)

Labelling:

• linking words to the objects to which they can refer, understanding that things can be labelled

Packaging:

• explores the labels + what they can be applied to
• over/underextention occurs in the process of understanding the range of a words meaning

Network-building:

• creating connections in words, understanding similarities + opposites in meanings

Categorised overextetion:  60%

• name for one member of a category is extended to all members of the category
  

• (apple is used for all round fruits)

Analogical overexention: 15%

• a word for one subject is used to mean somehing in a different category
• (ball used for a round fruit)

Mismatch statements: 25%

• child makes a statement about oe thing in relation to another
• (saying "duck" when looking at an empty cup)
  

Katherine Nelson

Identified four categories of first words: 

• naming (things or people)
  
• actions/events
• describing/modifying things
• personal/soial words

Nouns made up 60%, verbs were the next biggest group, modifiers came third, personal/social words made up 8% of the sample

Language Acquisition Device;:

• learning takes place in a specific area of the brain that is pre-programmed with the ability to use grammatical structures.

Universal Grammar:

• the idea that while languages seems differentm they all share many similarities 
  

Jarome Bruner's Language Acquisition System (LASS) explains how children learn to read via a four-phased stage:

• Gaining attention: focusing attention on a picture

• Query: asking what the object on a photo is

• Label: telling what the object is

• Feedback: responding to a baby's utterance

• to break down words into phonemes and graphemes
• to decode words by seperating them into smaller units
• to use rhyme or analogy to learn other words with similiar patterns, e.g c-a-t, m-a-t

• remember up to 44 phonemes and their graphemes
• recognise each grapheme and sound out each phoneme in a word
• to memorise phonemes quickly (up to 5/6 sounds per week)

Graphonics: looking at the shape of words and linking them to graphomes/words to interpret them

Semantic: understanding the meaning of words and making connections between words

Visual: looking at pictures to understand new words

Syntactic: using understanding of word and word cleasses to see if a words is in the right context

Contectual: searching for understanding in the situation of a story using personal experiences/own pragmatic understanding of csocail conventions

Miscue: making errors when reading

Lexical repetition: commonly used when introduced to new lexis

Syntactical structures: usually subject-verb-object and simply sentences containing are clause

Simple verb: single verbs used

One sentence per line: helping children to utter complete sentences

Anaphonic referencing: pronouns to describe characters already named

Limited use of of modifiers: less use (to none) of modifiers, adjectives and advebs to simplify what they are reading

Text-image cohesion: the picture tells the story of the page

Pre-reading and psuedo reading:(up to 6 yo) 11) "pretend" reading (turning pages and repeating stories told them before).  2) some letter and word recognition, often letters in thier names.

Initial reading and decoding: (6-7 yo) 1) reading simple texts with high lexis (developed when children understand the relation between phonemes and graphemes).

Confirmation and fleuncy:(7-8 yo)1) reading texrs quicker, accurately and fluently. 2) paying more attention to the meanings of words.

Reading for learning:(9-14 yo)1) are motivated to read for knowledge and information

Multiplicity and complexity:(14-17 yo)1) respond criticallt to what they read and are able to analyse texts

Constructuon and reconstruction:(18+ yo)1) reading selectively and forming opinions about what they have read

Preparation:(up to 6 yo)Basic motor skills are gained alongside some spelling

Consolidation:(7/8 yo) Writing is similiar to spoken language  (casual register, unfinished sentences and string of clauses joined by conjunction "and")

Differentiation: (9/10 yo)Understanding of difference between writing and speaking. Are able to write for different audiences and different purposes.

Intergration: (mid-teens yo)g this is the stage when children are able to develop a sense of self within their writing, where their writing style is clear.

Observation/ Comment:

• the child makes an obervation ("I saw a tiger") followed by an evaluate comment ("it was very large") or mixes these together ("I saw a very large tiger")

Recount:

• a chronological sequence of events with the structure being:  orientation - event - reorientation

Report a factual or objective description of events/ things, often not chronological

Narrative: a story genre where events are expected to take place and to resolve at the end, with the structure being: orientation - complication - resolution - coda (the last one while idintifying the point of the story, is not always included)

Expressive:

• Is the first mode to develop because it resembles speech
• Written in first person and context is usually based on personal experience

Poetic:

• develops later on as it needs skills in crafting and shaping language (is encouraged early bc of its creativity)
• Phonological features like rhyme, rhythm and alliteration, and adjectives and similies are common

Trasactional:

• tr develops are secondary school once children are able to seperate speech from writing
• More impersonal in style and tone
• Third person used to create a detached tone.
• Formal sentence structure

Pre-phonemic:

• imitate writing, scribbling and using pretend writing

Semi-phonetic:

• uses the ability to link shapes and letters to write words

Phonetic:

• understand that all phonemes can be repesented by graphemes; words become more complete

ENTITY + ATTRIBUTE

Is a person or object described?

"Kitty big"

Sees tigers in zoo

-

ACTION + AFFECTED

Does an action affect an object?

"Throw stick"

Child throws stick

ACTION + LOCATION

Does any action occur in a place?

"Sit chair"

Child sits on chair

-

ENTITY + LOCATION

Is an object located?

"Spoon table"

Spoon is on the table

-

POSSESSOR + POSSESSION

Does an object have a possessor?

"Daddy coat"

Points to dad's coat

-

NOMINATION

Is a person or object labelled?

"That cake"

That is a cake

-

RECURRENCE

Is an event repeated?

"More ball"

Finds second ball

-

NEGATION

Is something denied?

"no ball"

Has lost her ball

POSSESSOR + POSSESSION

Does an object have a possessor?

"Daddy coat"

Points to dad's coat

-

NOMINATION

Is a person or object labelled?

"That cake"

That is a cake

RECURRENCE

Is an event repeated?

"More ball"

Finds second ball

-

NEGATION

Is something denied?

"no ball"

Has lost her ball

Transitional:

• combine phonic knowlegde and visual moemory together and so an awareness of the combinations of letter and letter pattern

Conventional:

• spell most words correctly

Insertion:

• adding extra letters

Omission:

• omitting letters

Substitution:

• replacing one letter for another

Transposition:

• reversing the correct order of letters in words

Phonetic spelling:

• using sound awareness to guess the letter and combination of letters

Over/undergeneralisation of spelling rules:

• using spelling rules in the wrong context, e.g. saying "runned" instead of "ran"

Salient (key) sounds:

• writing only the key sounds