Virtual and Parasocial Relationships

• self-disclosure strengthens face-to-face relationships
• we can assume that computer-mediated-communication (relationships) are also strengthened by self-disclosure

• Reduced Cues Theory - Sproull and Kiesler

• Hyperpersonal Model - Walther

• Absence of Gating - McKenna and Bargh

• Sproull and Kiesler
• impersonal
• lacks cues of emotional state
• blunt/aggressive responses
• de-individuation or abnormal activity
  • leads to disinhibition in relating to others
• leads to a person not wanting to disclose any information about themselves

• Walther
• selective self-presentation
• manipulate replies and self-image
• high excitement vs trust levels mean CMC relationships usually end quickly 
• awareness of anonymity (with no care for dishonesty or judgement) - leads to hyperdishonesty or hyperhonesty
• makes a person want to disclose more, as they think that what they put out on the internet will never get back to their real-life person

• McKenna and Bargh
• more gates in face-to-face relationships
• because CMC relationships do not have these gates (e.g looks, stammers, etc), these relationships are more likely to have deeper and more frequent self-disclosure
• gives way to false identities

For

• McKenna and Bargh - anxious people reveal more online and 70% of anxious peoples' CMC romances lasted longer than 2 years
• Whitty and Joinson - in CMC interactions, direct, intimate questions are asked (not face-to-face small talks)

Against

• acrostics and emojis descrivbe emotional state
• relationships take place online and offline
• different types of CMC (dating sites, social media, forums) - we expect to meet up FtF with dating sites, so will disclose less than on social media

• one-sided relationships
• one side expends a lot of emotional energy, and the other does not know of their existence
• no chance of rejection

Likely when:

• viewer is female
• viewer is shy/lonely
• viewer's perception is that their idol is attractive
• viewer's perception is that their idol is real
• viewer's perception is that their idol is similar to them

Three Theories:

• Maltby's Levels Theory
• McCutcheon's Absorption-Addiction Model
• Ainsworth's Attachment Theory

• Maltby

Entertainment-Social Level

• gossip, celebrity discussion
• share publically, with little investment (e.g small talk)

Intense-Personal Level

• intense, compulsive feelings towards a celebrity
• share with like-minded friends

Borderline-Pathological Level

• uncontrollable/strange behaviours and fantasies
• extreme, costly and possibly illegal activities
• will do anything to make contact with their idol

• having a parasocial relationship allows someone to escape from reality
• they may have unfulfilling relationships/everday life, a weak sense of identity, or may be psychologically unstable
• association between poor mental health and parasocial relationships
• intense involvements are usually triggered by life events
• enables a sense of identity

Absorption

• seeking fulfilment in a celebrity
• identifying with celebrities on a personal level
• pre-occupied with their existence

Addiction

• need to sustain their commitment by feeling a stronger and closer involvement (like a drug)
• extreme behaviours and delusional thinking (escalates through a series of events)

• attachment difficulties in early life - set up for later abnormal relationships via the Internal Working Models
• insecure-resistants are needy and clingy, and fear rejection or breakdown of a relationship (so, parasocial relationships are a good compromise)
• insecure-avoidants find it hard to develop relationships (so, get into parasocial relationships because they can tailor it to themselves)
• secures have fulfilling relationships (so, tend to not form parasocial relationships)

For

• no culture bias of theories - parasocials exist worldwide
  • Schmid and Klimmt: parasociality towards Harry Potter was across many cultures
• Maltby: correlation between celebrity worshipping and psychological instability

Against

• self-report techniques and correlational analysis makes the theories lack validity
  • people conform to social desirability bias during questionnaires/interviews, and may not have mental health problems before the parasocial relationship forms
• models are not comprehensive, as they only explain WHY, not HOW they form 
• McCutcheon: found no correlation between insecure attachments and forming a parasocial relationships (although they were less opposed to stalking)
• alternative research suggests that lonely and shy people are less likely to form parasocial relationships (embarrassed) - extroverts = determined to have celebrities within their circle and feel embarrassed a lot less easily
• many people of all groups formed parasocial relationships with members of The Beatles and One Direction - unlikely to all be insecures (make up lesser proportion of the population)
• attachement may be a better theory than Maltby or McCutcheon's theories