Topic 3 - Internal factors (2) institutional racism

Troyna + Williams (1986) argue to explain ethnic diffs in achievement, look at how schools + colleges discriminate against ethnic minorities. Must make distinction between:

• individual racism - teachers
• institutional - whole school/college

Sees racism as ingrained feature of society. Involves not just intentional actions of individuals, but also institutional racism.

Black Panther party founders - Carmichael + Hamilton (1967) - institutional racism is:

• "less overt, more subtle, less identifiable in terms of specific individuals committing the acts...It originates in the operation of established + respected forces in society."

Roithmayr (2003) - institutional racism is 'locked-in inequality' - scale if historical discrimination so large, no longer needs to be any conscious intent to discriminate - inequality becomes self-perpetuating: it feeds on itself.

Gillborn (2008) applies concept of locked-in inequality to ed. Sees ethnic inequality as 'so deep rooted + so large, it's a practically inevitable feature of ed sys'.

CR theorists seee ed sys as institutionally racist in several ways eg marketisation + segregation, + the ethnocentric curriculum.

Gillborn (1997) argues b/c marketisation gives schools more scope to select pupils, allow neg stereotypes to influence decisions about school admissions.

Supported by Moore + Davenport's (1990) American research. Show how selection procedures  -> segregation - minority failing to get to better secondary schools due to discrimination. Eg, found primary school reports used to screen out pupils w/ language difficulties - application process diff for non-English speaking parents. Favoured white pupils - conclude selection -> ethnically stratified ed sys.

Commission for Racial Equality (1993) - similar biases in Britain. Racism in school admissions, ethnic minority more likely to end up in unpopular schools. Report identifies reasons:
 - reports from primary schools that stereotype minority pupils
 - racist bias in interviews for school places
 - lack of info + app forms in minority languages
 - ethnic minority parents often unaware of how waiting list sys works + importance of deadlines

Curriculum reflects culture of one ethnic group - eg of institutional racism b/c builds racial bias.

Egs:
 - languages, literature + music - Troyna + Williams note meagre provision for teaching Asian languages compared w/ European languages. 
 - history - Ball (1994) - criticises National Curriculum for ignoring ethnic diversity, promoting attitude of 'little Englandism'. Eg, history curriculum tries to recreate 'mythical age of empire + past glories', ignores history of black + Asian people.

Coard (1971; 2005) - ethnocentric curriculum may produce underachievement. Eg, history, British represented bringing civilisation to 'primitive' peoples they colonised. Image of black people as inferior undermines children's self-esteem -> failure.

Not clear what impact EC has. EG, ignores Asian culture, but Indian + Chinese pupils' achievement above naional average.

Gillborn (2008) - 'assessment game' rigged. Validates dom culture's superiority. If black children succeed as group, rules changed so still fail. In past, primary schools used 'baseline assessments', tested pupils when started compulsory schooling. Replaced in 2003, new way of measuring ability - foundation stage profile (FSP).

Result of change - overnight, black pupils appeared doing worse than white pupils. G explains reversal as result of 2 related institutional factors:
 - FSP based entirely on teachers' judgements, baseline assessments often used written tests as well.
 - change in timing: FSP completed at end of reception year, baseline assessments at start of primary school.

G argues both factors increase risk of teachers' stereotyping affecting results. Eg study of GCSE - Sanders + Horn (1995) - more weighting given to tasks assessed by teachers rather than exams, gap b/ween scores of diff ethnic groups widened.

'Gifted + Talented' programme - created w/ aim of meeting needs of more able pupils in inner-city schools. Benefits bright pupils from minority groups, but, G (2008) shows official stats show white pupils over twice as likely as Black Caribbeans to be identified as G+T, 5x more likely than Black Africans.

Exam tiers - Tikly et al (2006) - in 30 schools in 'Aiming High' initiative to raise Black Caribbeans pupils' achievement - black pupils nevertheless more likely than white pupils to be entered for lower tier GCSEs. Often b/c black pupils placed in lower sets. Effect is can only gain grade C at best.

Access to opps depend on teachers' assessments. Works against black pupils.

Teachers place students in set on basis of prior attainment + disciplinary concerns + perceptions of 'attitude'. G + Y - teachers had 'racialised expectations' black pupils would pose more discipline problems.

G - 'new IQism' - teachers + policymakers make false assumptions about nature of 'ability'/'potential'. See potential as fixed quality, can be asily measured - once measured, can be put in 'right' set/stream, G + T programme etc. G + Y (2001) - sec schools increasingly using old-style IQ tests to put in streams on entry.

For G, no real measure of 'potential' - all test can do is tell what eprson learnt already, not what may be able to do in future. From analysis of school assessment methods, programmes for gifted children etc, concludes ed sys institutionally racist, creates environment where ethnic minority routinely disadved.

Socio's eg Sewell reject CRT view of institutional racism + internal factors. Doesn't believe racism disappeared from schools, argues not powerful enough to prevent from success. Need to focus on external factors eg boys' anit-school attitudes, peer group + nurturing role of father.

Overachievement of 'model minorities' exists, eg Indian + Chinese pupils perform better than white majority.

If groups do so well, how can there be institutional racism in ed?

G responds by arguing image of Indians + Chinese hardworking 'model minorities' performs ideological function. Conceals fact ed sys institutionally racist:
 - makes sys appear fair + meritocratic
 - justifies failure of other minorities, eg black pupils
 - ignores fact 'model minorities' still suffer racism in schools.

Evans (2006) argues to understand relationship between ethnicity + achievement, need to look at how ethnicity reacts w/ gender + class. Eg, claims in examining black children's achievement, socio's tend to look at culture + ethnicity, rarely class.

Connolly's (1998) study of 5-6 y/os in multi-ethnic inner-city primary school. Pupils + teachers construct masculinity differently, depending on child's ethnicity. T's saw black boys disruptive under-achievers, controlled them by punishing them more. Responded by seeking status in non-academic ways. T's saw Asians boys as passive, conformist + academic, when misbehaved, seen as immature, not threatening. Picked on to assert masc.

Connolly (2006) - interactions effect - class + gender interact diff w/ ethnicity depending on which ethnic group looking at. Bigger gap b/ween achievements of white m/c + white w/c pupils than b/ween black m/c + black w/c.