TOPIC 1 BELIEFS - THEORIES OF RELIGION

SUBSTANTIVE - WEBER  belief in god/ supernatural, above nature and cannot be explained scientifically , these are EXCLUSIVE - draw a clear line between religious and non religious beliefs - buddhism is excluded from this. includes beliefs, theology, practises, institutions and consequences 

FUNCTIONAL - DURKHEIM social/ psychological functions it performs for individuals/ society and contribution to social integration, answering ultimate questions about the meanings of life.  INCLUSIVE - allows us to include a wide range of beliefs and no bias against religions that don't believe in god ie buddhism. although can be seen as too inclusive = pointless and social practises can be seen as a religion 

CONSTRUCTIONIST - INTERPRETIVISTS focus on how members define themselves in terms of religion - not possible to have a single universal definition of religion, these definitions can be influenced by who has power, this doesnt always involve a belief in god. Impossible to generalise about the nature of religion - ALDRIDGE 'cultural source' that shapes and influences people's everyday behaviour , rather a set of belifs that result in devotion/ worship 

SCIENCE - rationality, everything is based on evidence to give reason. Empirical evidence is observable evidenc collected in the physical world. Objectively approaching topics with an open mind- avoiding bias. Value freedom is the idea that beliefs and prejudices of a researcher should not influence the way research is carried our and evidence interpreted open belief system vs closed belief system 

IDEOLOGY - can be referreed to as a set of ideas and values which are shared by a social group that provides a particular view of society, presents only a partical and incomplete view of reality ans expresses and justifies the interests of particular groups 

INCLUSIVE - broad framework of beliefs, includes many different groups which traditionally would not be a religion 

EXCLUSIVE - meaningful religion, theological, belief in supernatural/ god, exclusion of illegitimate religions 

SACRED - includes what members of a given society see as special, set apart, forbidden that are religious, spiritual and holy. These sacred symbols are awe inspiring, respect and fear - they create shared rituals. TOTEM - symbolises clans origins, identity 

PROFANE -  includes ordinary, everyday non sacred objects, non spiritual and non religious or unholy aspects of work, these are set apart from the sacred. 

• religion just doesn't involve a set of beliefs, it involves rituals and practise in relation to the sacred which are collective - done together
• the sacred does not have to be religious, it could be a place, book, animal, person - collective conscience. CULTURAL TRANSITION - embedded into culture 
• sacred symbols maintain the same function within religions = unity

COLLECTIVE CONSCIOUS - set of norms, values, beliefs and knowledge that make social life and cooperation between individuals possible, binds people together, intergration. 

for Durkheim when society worships the sacred they are actually worshipping society - represents the power of the group on which the indiviual is utterly dependent. 

• religion not only promotes social solidarity/ collective conscious but provides us with intellectual and cognitive capacities 
• in order to think we must have appreciation for time, space, cause and number. In addition when we share our thoughts we must do so with others with the same caterory
• religion gives us time when the world was created at the start of time and early ideas of classification through the clan system 
• religion is the origin of human thought, science and creation 

EVALUATIVE POINTS 

• WORSLEY - notes that evidence for toteism is unsound, there is no sharp division between the sacred and profane - does not prove that toteism is the essence of all religions 
• POSTMODERNISTS - the collective consciousness does not exist - there is not a single moral community within society - fragmentation 
• BRUCE - religion and religious practise in western societies have declined - its difficult to see how religion can socialise its members into a collective consciousness
• DURKHEIM - argues the essence of religion is positive, when it reality it causes conflicts/ suffereing due to a lack of logical reasoning 

• believes religion is important psychologically in times of crisis - his view shows that religion provides security in an uncertain world and doesn't see religion as an expression of the worship in society - individualistic + provides reasons 
• key events in life course can make changes and disruption in social groups ie death can be disrupting - rituals reinforce feelings of comfort and solidarity - the belief in immorality prevents complete breakdown allowing for comfort
• this happens in two situations 

1.lagoon fishing - is safe and predicatble and successful method of poisioning, when islanders fish there is no ritual 

2.ocean fishing - dangerous and uncertain and accompanied by canoe magic = rituals used to ensure a safe and successful expedition, gives people a sense of control which eases tension and gives confidence - sees ritual serving as 'god of gaps' 

• most religions infuse particular values within religious symbolism and special significance 
• these values become moral codes for which followers obey ie respect for human life, honesty, compassion and charity 
• though religions will differ in the moral codes these sacrificed values have the same function of binding people into the same forms of behaviour - allowing for social order - religion provides meanings 

• 1. it creates and legitimates society's central values - sacralising them 
• 2. it is the primary source of meaning 

religion provides meaning for answering the ultimate questions about life and human condition - explaining suffering as a test of faith that will be rewarded in heaven - theodicy of dispriveliege 

religion enable people to adjust to adverse events or circumstances and helps to maintain stability

• argues religious functions bring people closer together = unity
• argued the most influential belief in american is civil religion 
• CIVIL RELIGION - belief system which includes a mass response with similar levels of passion and dedication found within obvious religions 
• Nazism and communism is a subsitute belief in God with beliefs in nationalism and marxism 
• these belief systems are refered to as functional alternatives
• civil religion in american is 'americanism' which unites all americans regardless of characteristics ie class, gender, ethnicity 
• this civil religion provides a belief in god and america - god is not defined as muslim, jewish he is foremost american who welcomes all religions beliefs as long as american is respected first 
• americanism can be seen in all aspects of social life ie superbowl/ god bless america
• bellah argues worship in god in the USA is inevitably the worship of society and values 

EVALUATION - all nationalist activities could be refered to as civil religion. MOOSA - does not benefit all americans equally after 9/11 muslims have been subject to intense secrutinty and sees civil religion as a nationalist ideology which excluded poor americans. It is doubtful that civil religion commands the same passion and respect as conventional religions do 

• conflict approach argues there is no real need for religion in a classless society = main function is to legitimate class inequality
• within a communist society the means of prod and wealth would be comunally shared without lass oppression and the need for legitimation, religion would be void 
• religion has 2 main roles 1. to perpetuate ideology 2. at act as support from alienation 
• ideology - a distorted belief system - negative - the bourgeoise control the economic production but in addition control the ideas and thoughts of the masses through agents with superstructure - serves interests of ruling class 
• religion legitimates suffering as inevitable and god given - exploration is cause by the supernatural 
• religion explains the inequality experienced on this earth are just and ordained by god - compensator for problems such as poverty 
• religion legitimates class inequality = false class consciousness - allows lc to believe their suffering will end after this world - inevitably prevents social change and creates a population who are fatalistic and apathetic

LENIN - religion seen as an intoxicating spiritual gin which woudl fool the masses and their understanding of reality - religion used to manipulate the masses in addition religion legitimates power and privilege by justifying positions as ordaind from god himself 

CASTE SYSTEM - system of social stratification based on ascribed statues, marriage is forbidden between castes, based on the doctrine of karma - reborn into a higher caste, maintains inequality

protestant religion is the 18th century attracted newly emerged capitalist class because it emphasised individualism rewared through hard work - under this the economic success was viewed as gods favour and poverty was gods sin - distorts people view points of religion 

religion as a product of alienation - refered to the separation of the proletariat from what they have produced - they are isolated from the means of prod, demanded to be passive and lack any form of creativity, have no free will, disempowered 

religion does not offer a solution to conflict and misery found within  society - it masks the causes and compenstates alienation 

theodicy of disprivelege = sects offer explanations/ justifications for suffering = marginalised 

• neo marxists argue that the role of religion is not just to maintain the status quo - in reality religion can challenge ideology and alienation - liberation theology 
• religion has been used to support dominant groups in america, modern protestant fundamentalist religions support conservative and anti communist values - indiviualism 
• ALTHUSSER - rejects concept of alienation as unscientifc and based on romantic idea that human beings have a true self 
• POSTMODERNISTS - would say that society has become more secular and so all religious meanings have been lost 
• FEMINISTS - argue that the marxists theory ignores the oppression of women 
• religion has a dual character / nature - can benefit the working class
• BLOCH - saw religion as an expression of the 'principle of hope' - our dreams of a better life that contains images of a perfect world - utopia - helps create a vision of a better worldv - social change 
• GRAMSCI - hegemony - ideological domination or leadership of society - popular forms of religion can challenge ruling class - offering better vision of the world - some clergy may act as intellectual and leaders in the wc struggles - calls this charismatic individuals = organic intellectuals 

• see society as patriarchal and religion as a patriarchal instution that reflects and perpetuates inequality 
• 4 examples of patriarchy in religion 1. religious organisations 2. places of worship 3. sacred texts 4. religious laws and customs 
• RELIGIOUS ORGANISATIONS - mainly male dominated despite the fact the women tend to participate more than men ie orthodox church forbid women beocoming preists - ARMSTRONG - see this as proof of womens marginalisation in religion 
• PLACES OF WORSHIP - often segregates the sexes and marginalises women ie seating women behind men and womens participation may be restricted ie not allowed to read a sacred text directy - HOLM - devaluation of women in religion 
  
• SACRED TEXTS - tends to focus on male gods, written and interpreted by god, stereotypes and anti women in nature ie genesis adam and eve 
  
• RELIGIOUS LAWS AND CUSTOMS - may give women fewer rights ie access to divorce, many religious promote womens traditional domestic and reproduction roles ie bans contraception 

• ARMSTRONG - women have not always been subordinate to men in religions ie early religions placed women at the centre of doctrines - women were seen as earth mother godesses, fertility cults and preisthoods - middle east about 6000 years ago 
• contemporary religions such as pagan witchcraft has female godesses 
• ALDRIDGE - argues that gender equality can be found amongst contemporary groups like the society as friends - quakers, the unitartarians within some spiritual movement 
  
• despite this - from 4000 years ago there was a shift towards monothestic religions which focused on single all powerful make gods and male prophets such as Abraham.
• SAADAWI - religion does not cause oppression rather subordinate the result of patriarchal forms of society coming into existence 
• the rise of monotheism as legitimating the power of men over women 
• 'religious forms of feminsim' women use religion to gain greater freedom/ respect
• hijab for female liberation - gains parental approval for further education/ employment 
• RINALDO 'piety movements' - conservative movements that viewpoint traditional teachings about womens role, modest dress, prayer/ study of the bible 
• WOODHEAD - argues for religious forms of feminism, looks at the hijab - does not lose cultural identity/ history