The cold war pre-Korea

Cairo Conference- November 1943 (attended by Roosevelt, Churchill, Jiang Jieshi)

• Focus ASIA
• decided that Korea would be independant by end of war
• Taiwan would go from Japan to China

Tehran- November 1943 ( attended by Big 3)

• agreed to open second front to relieve red army
• In turn Soviet agree to enter war against Japan after Germany defeated

Yalta- February 1945 (attended by Big 3)

• Agreement Germany disarmed and divided into 4 occupation zones
• In exchange entering war against Japan, USSR given: islands South Sakalin and Kurils, control outer Mongolia, two ice-free pacific ports, control 2 railways Manchuria

Potsdam Conference-July 1945 ( Truman, Stalin and Churchill, replaced by Atlee)

• Potsdam decleration- complete surrender Japan or would face complete destruction
• confirmation of division of Germany
• liberation of Korea as soon as possible

Moscow conference of foreign ministers- December 1945

• US and soviet set up joint commission to make recommendations of single free gov in Korea
• 4 part trusteeship for up to 5 years before can become independant

• Churchill and Roosevelt founded by signing Atlantic Charter August 1941, lay out goals post-war world, agreed:
  • not to expand spheres influence
  • uphold territiorial boundaries
  • support rights of people to choose own government
  • restore self-government to countries who had lost right
  • grant free access to raw materials and trade to all countries
  • seek economic collaberation between all countries
  • strive together for peace and freedom from fear and want
  • work towards disarmament

• advised exploration of Soviet intentions regarding  future of the remainder of Europe,not to allow Soviet influence to go unchecked- basis containment policy
•  hardened attitude State department sowing seeds later Defensive Perimeter Strategy
• After defeat Germany and Japan 1945, US gradually reduced conventional US armed forces to 1/10th wartime level: aprox 12 million in 1945 to 1.4 million in 1947 (had stockpilled atomic weapons)
• alarmed Kennan. State department request for routine research gave opportunity to investigate whole basis of Soviet foreign policy
• findings presented in long telegram- February 1946
• Kennan suggested Soviet leaders assumed:  
• surrounded by capitalist enemies that they would eventually have to fight
• could exploit disagreements amongst these enemies
• to defend USSR must fight 'patient but deadly struggle' for total destruction of rivals

• Alarming tone sowed seeds of anti-communism, though claimed not intended forward anti-communist poilcy to begin, prefered Roosevelts more conciliatory approach
• claimed sections of telegram taken out of context
• Recommendations from telegram were:  
  •  
    • focus military strategy solely on USSR
    • defend: Atlantic community, Mediterranean, Western Pacific including japan and Phillipines
    • restore economic health and political self-confidence to Britain, France, Germany and later Japan
    • fill power vacuums in Germany and Japan to increase stability
    • educate American public in realites of situation
    • act as chief defender freedom, present positve, constructive pic of world US would like to see
• Big impact in state department, Kennan recalled to washington and Truman gave major role in drawing up Marshall plan

• Given in Fulton, Missouri in front of president Truman, no longer PM
• Big factor in turning US public opinion against USSR , criticism of Soviet policy in Eastern Europe exposing soviet threat to democracy, claims such as want 'indefinate expansion of power and doctrines'
• More subtle meassage lost: hoped Anglo-American relationship pave way for world peace and strengthen Europe as barrier against Soviet advance, intended to emphasise work UN organisation as basis for peace

• Due to war economies throughout Europe shattered, allowing comunism to make inroads in many countries
• Marshall Tito establishe communist gov in Yugoslavia, civil war in Greece, unrest in Turkey
• Jan 1947, Britain forced to withdraw support for these countries due to lack of finances, so USA had to step in to defend areas from communism
• Truman requested $25 million aid package for Greece

Marshall Aid

• Named after General George Marshall
• Entrusted with task of overseeing use of $400 million of economic aid to reconstruct  Europe, make prosperous to contain communist expansion (Soviet-inspired)

• Wanted close relations Asia, Japan and Phillipines reconstructed to exemplify success democracy
•  Wanted to uphold capitalism and develop strong economies based on free trade in S-E Asia- prosperous economies help spread costs defence
• no fear overstretching military resources- nuclear weapons gave USA feeling of superiority

main strategies US: 

• make Japan satellite of USA
• economic aid to anti-comm forces China and Indochina
• establish and defend ring offshore Pacific islands as barrier to advance of communism and encroachment S-E Asian trade
• prop up South Korea though of little interest
• Ironic- USA claimed anti-imperialist but Truman prepared to accept return old Imperial powers like Britain and France to South-East Asia to reinforce democracy, could then share cost of strengthening regimes

• Process model states began Philippines, ex-colony USA
• when colony US bought large areas of land in Philippines to open up trade of S-E Asia to US
• country became dependant on US markets to sell goods such as rice, tobacco, coconuts, timber, rubber
• Filipino landed classes prospered from boom in rice and sugar prices - realised wealth depended on US support. widening gap between rich and poor, lead to peasant unrest, independance movement began to develop
• 1935 became semi-independant, MacArthur asked to set up Philippines army, himself as Field Marshall, underestimated strength advancing Japanese, defeated in battle (1941-42)
• Japan seized Philippines, established authoritarian gov, declared martial law used Filipino economy to support needs of advancing troops
• Some Filipinos sided with Japanese, Huks harassed Japanese, guerilla raids, assassinated collaboraters
• carved out 'liberated zones' north of Manila, mobilised peasants to maintain agricultural estates abandoned by landlords. Worked with US against Japanese
• Given independance 4th July 1946

Economy

reinstate free trade policy with region to make it: 

• market for US goods, source raw materials for reconstructed Japan and US military operations in region, strong political ally in front line defence of S-E Asia
• $620 million US investment into economy, some used to restore infrastructure, most went to individuals to re-distribute land and wealth
• Groups dominant in pre-war Filipino society restored to previous status
• Bell Trade Act 1946- protected American domestic producers with preferential trade conscessions, quotas imposed on Filipino products competing with US ones
• Filipino market places flooded with cheap US goods



• USA supprot Manuel Roxas, becomes president
• unpopular, seen as double agent and collaborater during war
• voting dominated by literate upper classes
• Bell Trade Act only passed by 'silencing' critics
• Strategically placed US military bases justified as 'stabilising influence'- purpose was to maintain Philippines within sphere of influence and support re-instated Filipino elite
• state department  officials accepted Philippines faced no outside threat
• Military police set up under control US army
• full of opponents of Huks, brutal repression of Huk reformers and peasant supporters
• USA see Huks as threat to plans, powerful pre-war landlords restored
• 1949-51 Huks led armed rebellion to gain political rights, improve working conditions, remove US trade restrictions. Rebellion crushed by American troops
• Huks disarmed and leaders imprisoned, US justified by branding them communists or communist inspired  

• 6th August 1945 atom bombs Hiroshima and Nagasaki (9 August), caused death of 210,000 civilians
• 15th August Emperor Hirohito announced surrender of Japan and MacArthur becomes supreme commander of US occupation forces in Japan
• no political system, social ties had been broken. Suffered massive casulties, almost 3 million Japanese had been killed (3% 1939 population)
• short of food even before 3 million scattered troops began to be shipped home
•  had been 1 of 5 powerhouses global production, had skilled workforce and industrial plant,low industrial and agricultural output, spiralling inflation, black market and looting
• economy had been devastated, only 2 million of Tokyo's 7 million remained in city
• large numbers poor, homeless and hungry people, orphans, widows and single women particularly badly hit
• some women recruited as prostitutes by Japanese officials offering food and shelter, became known as Recruitment and Amusement Association (RAA)

• threat confrontation meant Stalin backed down on request to accept surrender Japanese forces in North Japan
• Truman refused to divide Japan into multinational zones like in Germany
• four-power allied Joint Council set up
• Stalin agreed all decisions concerning Japan should be made by General MacArthur, Supreme commander of Allied Powers of occupation
• Stalin may have felt USA might accept Soviet control of Eastern Europe
• Truman kept promise made Stalin at Yalta allowed Soviet occupation of Kuril Islands
• caused bitter protests by Republicans in Congress
• American press believed decision threatened security USA and future role in Japan

• Aim: remove Japan's military forces, introduce democracy
• US still felt large amount hatred and fear of Japanese, mistreatment of US prisoners of war
• In light UN emphasis on human rights, MacArthur adopted cautious policy in punishing previous regime
• War crimes trials over 2 years May 1946-November 1948, gradually phased out after 1947
• Japanese supportive, co-operate as long as Hirohito exempt from trials
• Army dimantled, weapons destroyed, former military officers excluded from leading political roles in new government
• many rich landlords that had supported war and expansion lost power to tenant farmers
• November 1945 MacArthur ordered tax on Japanese wartime profits, ended payment of compensation
• aimed to keep inflation in check and allow more control over economy
• succesful repatriation of prisoners of war, though veterans unpopular and treated like outcasts

• 1946 MacArthurs officials draft new constitution, came into effect 1947- stated Japan would never declare war on another nation/ use force to solve disputes
• Japan able to agree only as they had protection of US nuclear shield
• constitution guaranteed basic freedoms and civil liberties:  
  •  
    • political parties including comunists allowed to exist, political prisoners released
    • woman were to gain equal rights
    • noble status abolished, christianity tolerated alongside Shinto, religious freedom
    • Hirohito removed from politics, patriotic symbol
    • MacArthur became new 'god-like' figure

• Aim: make Japan prosporous to keep out of Soviet sphere
• Japan had depended on oversees imports of food and raw materials. 1945 dried up and Japanese trade collapsed, 1947 little improvement: industrial production low, exports weak, food expensive due to shortages
• PM Shigeru Yoshida saw importance economic development determined to retain Japan's national identity
• Zaibatsu (large powerful companies in industry and banking that had dominated economy before and during war e.g Sony) remained in control business
• Japanese civil servants continued reconstruction of economy- advised producing high-grade machine tools and ultra short-wave communication as priority

• 1947 Chairman of Chrysler and group American businessmen ended Zaibatsu monopoly helped set up car industry. 1949 congress grant $500 million p.a in aid to Japan to purchase foodstuffs and raw material
• 38% cultivated land purchased from landlords under government  reform programme, resold at low prices to farmers who worked them
• By 1950, 3 million peasants had own land
• Kennan suggested restoring influence of former Japanese politicians and businessmen
• US and Japan co-operated to build up foreign trade, excluding communists from involvement
• Ministry trade and industry built on previous successes, and US fixed exchange rate to boost exports
• economy prospered- 1947 Japanese export values-$174 million, $827 by 1950

• Aim: an active role for Japan in US containment policy
• CIA saw Japan's role crucial for Cold War balance of power in Far East

Communists controlled rearmed japan could use location and industry to:  

• protect comm controlled lands in Asia
• break through US defences in western Pacific
• strengthen Soviet control of Pacific shipping and sea-power
• launch agressive policy South and S-E Asia
• free up comm forces for use elsewhere

Whereas if western democracies allied with re-armed Japan, would gain: 

• industrial and military resources
• potential military base in north-east Asia
• protection for US defensive outposts in western Pacific
• shining example to encourage non-comm countries to fight communists

• MacArthurs hold on policy started to loosen as Truman feared tight occupation controls damage Japanese goodwill, drive into arms USSR
• Japanes comm party gaining support, encouraged by Soviet mission in Tokyo
• 1949-Red scare USA , Japan beggining year series industrial strikes, communists polled 3 million votes in elections
• US state department increased control Japan, gov workers forbidden to strike US occupation authorities started arresting communist sympathisers in trade union movement
• 'Red Purge' began, eroding democracy established
• containment comm necessary before Americans could give Japanese more control day-to-day gov
• removing Japanese armed forces caused problems for US when preparing for independence
• to defend Japan Kennan recommended long-term control Okinawa, expansion naval base Yokosuka, creation 'National Police Reserve' 75,000 men- basically lightly-equipped army
• Back-tracking on disarmament policy

•  Treaties recognised official status Japan at centre US defensive strategy
•  After 1950- response to Korean war, made rearmament essential. By 1952 Japanese forces had tanks and artillery, 1954 130,000 strong-army
• war boost Japanese economy- US  bought war supplies worth $500,000,000 from it
•  Japanese trade embargo with China. War brought forward signing San Francisco Peace Treaty- Japanese independance
• terms of treaty were:
  •  
    • full sovereignty
    • reperations by negotiation
    • loss all land surrenderd at armistice to USA, including Korea, Taiwan, Kuril Islands and South Sakhalin
    • Taiwan not return to communist China or South Sakhalin to USSR
    • US occupation forces withdraw no later than 90 days after treaty
• Same day another treaty allowed US land, air and sea forces be stationed in Japan to 'defend against outside attack and internal riots started by foreign power'
• Japan promised not to allow any other country to station troops on territory without permision USA. Japan also sign trade treaty with Taiwan.

• Russia money and weapons to CCP for acceptance into Kuomingtang
• After Japanes invasion 1937, Jiangs wife to USA to gain support
• Result Roosevelt gives loans to nationalist China to buy modern waepons- Lend Lease Act, 11th March 1941 $50 billion to 38 different countries to sell/ transfer/excahnge/ lend equipment to defend against Axis powers
• Attack Pearl harbour 1941, allows USA and Brit to give aid openly to China
• 1944 USA made first contact with CCP, IMPRESSED, reluctant to give aid to forces
• USSR liberate Manchuria after given control of two railways in Manchuria at Yalta
• Mao's forces join in invasion, recieve Japanese weapons and ammunition from USSR, stripped Manchuria od resources
• descisions at Yalta and Potsdam directly enabled USSR to aid CCP, Republicans blame democrats for 'shameful betrayal', right-wing politicians began to look for communists inside Trumans administration, sowed seeds McCarthyism
• USA give aid to Nationalists, supply aircrafts, teams to Taiwan to train troops

• $2 billion to Nationalists
• Army weak, cowardly, v.unpopular. Generals chosen for loyalty rather than ability
• Jiangs army lose 45% men in 4 1/2 months
• Mao retained forces at 2.7 million
• CCP- popular and powerful force among peasants
• Mao shifts tactics from guerilla warfare to open confrontation as a result defeat nationalists
• 1st October 1949, Mao declares China PRC
• December Jiang retreats with the remain of his forces to Taiwan, declared the Republic of Taiwan
• Acheson suggests recognising CCP, withdrawing support for Nat China, Truman refused

Soviet- Chinese treaty- February 1950

• Treaty gave PRC $3000 million in Soviet aid
• USSR and PRC promise mutual military assistance against agression by Japan

• Asian markets key,provided  90% worlds rubber, 60% tin, essential raw materials such as petrol and timber
• USA saw Asian national movements as communist inspired and feared expansion soviet influence
• Therefore USA construct defensive line military bases including Aleutians, Midway, former Japanese mandated Islands, Okinawa, Philippines, Australia, New Zealand, British and Dutch islands S-W pacific
• Okinawa strong point for contol ports North-East Asia, amphibious attack could be launched
• military, air and naval bases set up offshore island chain
• also allowed access raw materials in India and S-E Asia