The psychodynamic approach

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Basic assumptions - unconscious mind

Pyschodynamic approach believes driving force behind behaviour is unconscious mind. Believes if we have problematic/challenging behaviour then we must access unconscious mind to sort it out.

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Basic assumptions - instincts/drives

Apprach argues instincts/drives that motivate behaviour. Means we're driven by instinct to go through series of stages in development of behaviour + personality.

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Basic assumptions - early childhood experiences

Early childhood believed to be pivotal in making us person we are. Most of pusch development argued (by this approach) to be formed prior to age six

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Role of the unconscious

Importand as origin of behaviour. Iceberg model used to explain unconscious. Tip of iceberg, conscious mind - visible. Below surfae, unconscious mind. No clear way of seeing what lies beneath (unconscious mind), but greater influence than conscious mind.

Freud believed 3 levels of thought - explained behaviour. Conscious, pre-conscious, unconscious. Pre-conscious 'just below surface', thoughts that may surface at any point. Many of memories reside here - accessible, but not at forefront of thoughts. However, Freud argued there are thoughts that won't easily surfac, + may never do so - are in unconscious mind.

Drives/instinct that motivate our behaviour are also in unconscious + inaccessible. Traumatic/unpleasant memories also believed to remain here, not accessible but still driving our behaviour.

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Structure of personality

The three elements of the personality are shaped through experience + will affect how someone behaves. This approach suggests much of our behaviour comes from the conflict between the three.

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Structure of personality - id

Form from birth - 18 months. Also sometimes refered to as 'pleasure principle', b/c dominant force of id to seek pleasure. The childlike, selfish, hedonistic part of personality - focuses on self.

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Structure of personality - ego

Develops between 18 months + 3 years - can be referred to as 'reality principle'. Able to delay id's drive for pleasure. Keeps balance of influence between id + superego (opposite forces).

Neither id nor superego should be dominant, otherwise could adversely affect behaviour + mental health of individual. Role of ego to ensure this doesn't happen.

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Structure of personality - superego

Develops between ages of 3 + 6 years. 'Morality principle'. Role of superego to act as an individual's conscience. Opposite of id - feels guilt + holds someone back from behaving certain way if it's thought to be wrong. Superego helps personality to form moral code.

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Defence mechanisms

Methods we use unconsciously to reduce anxiety, which weakens the influence of the ego. Ego needs to be strong to mediate between id + superego. For this reason, defence mechanisms sometime called 'ego defence mechanisms'. Defence mechanisms therefore argued to be helpful.

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Defence mechanisms - repression

Unpleasant memory pushed into unconscious mind where it's not accessible to conscious mind + therefore cannot cause anxiety. Does, however, still affect behaviour in unconscious mind. 

There is no recall of the event or situation.

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Defence mechanisms - denial

Refusal to accept reality of unpleasant situation. Reduces anxiety caused by situation.

Someone may believe situation not negative + that therefore should not cause anxiety. Not positive thinking, merely resistance to accept reality.

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Defence mechanisms - displacement

When the focus of a strong emotion is expressed onto neutral person/object. Reduces anxiety by allowing expression of emotion.

Someone may exhibit very strong emotion but focus it onto an uninvolved person/object.

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Psychosexual stages - Oral stage

At birth - focus for pleasure + gratification is mouth. Enter oral stage. Child will get pleasure from biting + suckling (oral activities). Freud believed this stage important in formation of the personality.

Initially (as no teeth), in stage called oral passive - when pleasure derived mainly from suckling. Then enters oral aggressive, when gains pleasure from biting (eg during teething).

If child weaned from mother's milk too early/too late, argued that child will become fixated on oral stage. Would have unconscious effect on personality. As an adult this fixation might mean, if orally passive, they're dependent, passive + gullible. If orally aggressive, adult will be aggressive, expressed verbally/physically.

Overall, people w/ oral fixation thought to be more likely to chew pens, bite fingernails + smoke.

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Psychosexual stages - anal stage

Around 18 months old - moves to anal stage. Libido of child moves focus from mouth to ****. Pleasure gained from defacating - also age that child is potty trained at - child overly keen to do so. As an adult fixation, this translates to a generous person who is demonstrative w/ their emotions. Also might have fits of temper.

If parents strict about potty training, child will become anxious about using potty + try to hold on to faeces rather than use the potty. Stage called anally retentive. Adult w/ unconscious fixation will display personality characteristics eg very organised, very neat + reluctant to spend money.

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Psychosexual stages - phallic stage

Around age of 3. Focus for pleasure moved to genitals. Differentiated by gender of child. Boys - Oedipus complex, girl - Electra complex.

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Psychosexual stages - oedipus complex

Freud argued boy experiences intense sexual feelings for mother. Father seen to be rival + therefore child wants him to leave so mother can focus on him. As father a lot bigger, child feels threatened by him, as he is a rival for mother's affection. Boy worried that father will castrate him as may see him as rival - 'castration anxiety'.

To combat anxiety, befriend father. Does this by acting similarly to father, so sees him as ally rather than rival (identification). Reduces castration anxiety -> Oedipus complex resolved.

For this to occur, father figure must be present. In cases where mother is single parent + no father figure for boy to identify w/, argued more likely to grow up homosexual, but no evidence for this.

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Psychosexual stages - electra complex

For girls, realisation they don't have penis important. Think the mother had it removed, so around age 3, develop penis envy of males. When that desire not fulfilled, expressed through desire for baby. 

Girl desires father in similar way to boys w/ their mothers, so goes through identification process in same way. Fixations at phallic stage can lead to jealous + anxious adult.

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Psychosexual stages - latent stage

At age of 6, children enter latent stage. Libido (sexual energy) displaced throughout body + seems this is a relatively calm time in development w/ no complexes to resolve or foci for pleasure in body (according to Freud). Child essentially concentrates on being a child.

Neo-Freudians eg Erik Erikson didn't believe this period is w/o problems - in particular argued children have all sorts of insecurities + inferiorities to deal w/. However, in theory, quiet period in development - no fixations/effects on adult personality.

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Psychosexual stages - genital stage

Libido focused in genitals, where it stays for rest of life. Everyone reaches this stage + from here, child becomes adult. Fixations in 1st three stages have enduring effect on adult personality. 

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Little Hans case study - Freud (1909)

Hans had developed phobia of horses - father documented, in detail, what his son said + did, + passed on info to Freud in form of letters for analysis. Freud interpreted behaviour + reported dreams as problem in phallic stage.

Key features of analysis:
 - Hans' fascination w/ penis important. Noticed animals, inc horses, had much larger penises than him. Interest thought to be indicative of phallic stage.
 - Hans' father went away for a while, Hans enjoyed having mother's attention to himself. Whrn father returned, Hans resented his presence. Freud argued this was evidence of Oedipus complex.
 - Hans' little sister, Hannah, born in this period + was major influence on Hans' behaviour. Hans hostile towards sister - Freud saw this as an extension of Oedipus complex.
 - Hans wa sexperiencing sexual attraction to mother, + father was therefore rival for her affections - experiencing castration anxiety.

Recovered from phobia. Met w/ Freud at 19 and reported phobia not reoccurred. Had seen horse collapse on street when he was young, could have shocked him + classically conditioned him.

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Evaluations (Strengths)

Highlights how important childhood experience is to later development. Strengthens case for children's rights reform. Means children should be nurtured, childhood precursor to adulthood.

Freud's ideas used by some therapists today to treat mental health issues - suggests there's a group of psychologists who feel psychodynamic ideas have merit + validity. Case studies from Freud's work that seem to show his patients make recovery following therapy.

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Evaluations (Weaknesses)

Freud's ideas difficult to test reliably, -> argument his ideas are unscientific + can't be proven. Ensuring a methodology has actually reached unconscious mind is problematic.

Much of evidence for approach comes from case studies that lack reliability + can't be generalised to population as case studies Freud used culturally specific + came from wealthy people in Viennese society.

Argued people recovered from mental illness following psychotherapy could be due to spontaneous recovery. Eysenck (1952) meta-analysis, 1000s patients. Worked for 66%. 70% people suffering from neurotic disorders + who didn't receive treatment also recovered. Would suggest pontaneous recovry may occur in some cases - psychotherapy suits some people, not others. 

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