1. Liberalism

What is liberalism?

• Centres on the belief in individual freedom
• Two schools of theought: Classical (economic / neo-liberalism) & Modern (social / welfare liberalism)

Three Key Themes:

• Rationalism
• Individualism
• Freedom

Rationalism:

• Product of the Enlightenment - challenged earlier beliefs that humans were governed by instinct, emotion & prejudice
• Humans are creatures of reason & logic, who base their views on evidence rather than dogma
• Humans have the ability & the right to make their own decisions & should be able to resolve disputes through peaceful discussion
• Implies individual freedom, representative democrcy, tolerance & international peace & harmony

Individualism

• Every individual is of primary importance, but is of equal importance to others
• Foundational equality: every individual is of equal moral worth & deserving of the same fundamental human rights

Freedom

• Based on the importance of the rational individual
• One of three natural rights for early liberals e.g. Locke: "life, liberty & property"
• J.S.Mill: "Over himself, over his own body & mind, the individual is sovereign"

Mechanistic model: The state is like an artificial machine, created to serve & protect the freedoms of individuals

Government is a neccessary evil

• Protects self-serving individuals from one another
• Embodies state power, which can be coercive & oppressive
• Lord Acton: "All power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely" - self-interested individuals will inevitably use power to further their own interets

Limited Government

• constitutionalism
• rule of law
• separation of powers
• bicameralism
• political & economic pluralism
• private property
• consent & representative govt.
• politial equality
• civil rights & liberties
• decentralisation
• equal opportunity
• open govt. & society
• negative freedom in the private spheres
• tolerance

• The older strand of liberalism, it advocated constitutional govt. based on consent & the rule of law.
• Laissez-faire free-market capitalism - has been taken up by noe-liberal conservatives more recently

The Classical Liberal View on Freedom

• Negative freedom
• The state was a "realm of coercion", where private society was a "realm of freedom"
• The nightwatchman state - should only exist to protect life, liberty & property

The Classical Liberal View of the Economy

• Laissez-faire, free-market, private-enterprise capitalism
• Right of the individual to enter & succeed / fail in the market without state intervention
• Economy controlled only by the forces of supply & demand. Smith: "The invisible hand"
• Economic inequality should be an incentive to enterprise
• egotistical / atomistic / possessive individualism

Maintains emphasis on individual freedom & constitutional govt. but looks favourably upon state intervention

The Modern Liberal View of Freedom

• Keeps many of the main doctrines of classical liberalism
• Negative freedom promotes a "survival of the fittest" system, which may undermine equality of opportunity, social justice, economic efficiency & social harmony
• Positive freedom, advocated by T.H. Green

The Modern Liberal View of the Economy

• Rejected the free-market economy in favour of a mixed economy with an enabling state
• Keynesian economics: public spending should be used to pull the economy out of depression
• 1942 Beveridge Report: want, disease, ignorance, squalor & idleness
• Welfare: "hand, up, not a hand out"

3 forms of equality:

• Foundational equality: All individuals are of equal moral worth & equally deserving of fundamental human rights
• Formal equality: Legal & political equality
• Equality of opportunity: Access & chance for economic success. (Classical liberals = negative freedom; Modern liberals = positive freedom) Reject equality of outcome

Influence on conservatism

• New Right neo-liberalism: Adopted free-market economics & atomistic individualism

Influence on socialism

• Social democracy influenced by liberalism. Keynesian economics
• New Labour & communitarianism (widening individual rights with sense of moral responsibility)