The Nile Valley 1882-98

?
  • Created by: Hbrandxx
  • Created on: 12-04-18 12:21

1. Why did the British intervene in Egypt in 1882?

The Problem of the Ottoman Empire

  • Ottoman captured Egypt in 1517, expanding its hold across North African coast but empire was in decline in 1900s which worried the British- other EU powers could benefit/gain territory.
  • Khedives in Egypt had lots of political freedom from Britain: from 1850s it relied on EU financial investment to develop its economy, 1863-70 Egypt's foregin debt went from £3 mill to £10mil.
  • Khedive bankrupt 1875- Dual Control est. by Britain/France: forced khedive to introduce stringent financial reforms and reduce interest on their foreign debt.
  • Khedive Ismail received a letter from sultan addressing him as ex-khedive; nationalist figurehead critical of the Ottoman and Anglo-French thus emerged.
  • 1880- Laws of Liquidation enforced to reduce Egyptian debt.

Arabi Pasha and the development of Egyptian nationalism

  • Led army officers in protest against Tewfik and Anglo-French interference in 1876.
  • Formed Egyptian nationalist party 1879 'Egypt for the Egyptians'- appealed to bourgeoisie/fellahin and led a coup after they attempted to dismiss 2,500 officers from army.
  • Forced khedive Tewfik to appoint a nationalist ministry: new cabinet borrowed £400,000 from Rothschilds to support army pay= British concerned with volatility of this.
1 of 15

2. Why did the British intervene in Egypt in 1882?

Protecting EU loans and people

Strategic

  • Suez canal opened route to India so shortened their journey their= trade.
  • Main shareholders in the canal were French but in 1875 Disraeli purchased 45% from khedive.
  • Clear Anglo-French rivalry/co-operation over investments; Britain wanted to be most powerful.
  • Had a vested interest in keeping Egypt pro-British as they had shares in the canal.
  • Scramble for Africa- hub for natural resources, industrial sections, markets for selling goods.

Trade 

  • Provided a growing market for Britishe exports during modernisation under Khedives.
  • They purchased 80% of Egypt's exports (cotton) and supplied 44% of their imports.
  • Britain's exports to Egypt were 5% of total imports.
  • 88% of British commerce passed through the Canal.
  • During US civil war, Britain imported lots of Egyptian cotton to make up loss of cotton from Southern states in US.
2 of 15

3. Why did the British intervene in Egypt in 1882?

Financial

  • British bond-holders in London exposed to failure by Egypt to pay debts.
  • Gladstone encouraged to protect bond-holders in Egypt as 37% of his personal fortune was invested in Egyptian loans.
  • Britain had to ensure Egypt paid off debt as they were their main creditor- needed to repay bond-holders investments.

People (Humanitarian motive)

  • Short-term, Britain could claim intervention to prevent EU loss of life.
  • 11 June 1882, w/British + French fleet anchored off Alexandria, a row escalated into anti-Christian riots, 50 EU and 250 Egyptians killed: Britain blamed riots on Pasha's supporters.
3 of 15

4. Why did the British intervene in Egypt in 1882?

French withdrawal

  • 1882- British/French responded to tensions by issuing Gambetta Note: stated that they regarded the maintenance of khedive's power as the best guarantee for Egypt's development.
  • Intended to appease Nationalists but they imposed a nationalist cabinet on khedive.
  • France/Britain feared he'd repudiate Egyptian debt payments/wanted to protect bond-holders- sent warships to Alexandria to restore khedive authority; French didn't support because:
  • 1- Action of Bismarck: Germany no longer willing to support Dual Control and French didn't want to argue. Germans opposed any intervention by them w/o Bismarck's agreement.
  • 2- French internal politics meant that Leon Gambetta was replaced by Freycinet who was less inclined to intervene in Egypt and was supported by French parliament. 
  • French frustrated by growing UK control in Egypt- had strategic interest in North Africa. 
  • Had regional acquisition in Algiers and Tunisia so posed a threat to Britain.

 

4 of 15

5. Why did the British intervene in Egypt in 1882?

The British military campaign 1882

  • Joint expedition: in uneasy position of acting unilaterally when French PM refused to sanction bombardment of Alexandria.
  • 1882- Britain/France present joint note to Egyptian gov recognising khedive's authority.
  • Anglo-French fleet sails for Alexandria where Pasha seized control: anti-Christian riot kills 50 Christians and Arabi fortifies city against Anglo-French expedition.
  • British warships bombard and Pasha is defeated (57 British dead, 2000 Egyptian casualties),
  • Pasha is exiled to Ceykon, Britain restore Tewfik who's a nominal figurehead.
  • 1883- Baring returns to Egypt as consul general and British advisers to khedive report him.

Historical interpretations of the occupation 

  • Robinson/Gallagher: British pursued an anti-imperialist policy, identified local crises drawing them into Africa. Suez Canal and route to India pulled Britain into Egypt.
  • Cain/Hopkins: capital investment in London (personal financial holdings in Egyptian loans). National interest defined by them so city's interests/national interests were linked.
  • National Egyptian historians- social/economic tension= khedive modernisation/nationalism.
5 of 15

1. Why was Egypt controlled by the British from 18

  • Gladstone stated that as soon as financial stability was assured the British advisers to khedive would withdraw- no retreat so remained under 'veiled protectorate'.
  • Announced their intention to withdraw 66 individual times, reasons for continued involvement:
  • 1-Defeat in 1883 of Eyptian army under Hicks by radical jihadist forces under Ahmad.
  • 2-Nature of British administrator Baring and his agenda for Egypt.
  • 3-Defeat of Gladstone over question of Irish Home Rule 1886/dominance of Salisbury.
  • 4-French North African rivarly.

The Veiled Protectorate 1882-1914

  • London controlled Egypt without legal basis for it other than the lie that khedive requested it.
  • Egypt remained as a province of Ottoman + only khedive had legal authority but his British under secretaries effectively ran the country.
  • Gladstone/Salisbury's departure never came to fruition due to consul general in Egypt and continuing strategic importance of Egyt.
  • Gambetta Note issues by Anglo-French 1882 as indication of military intervention there.
6 of 15

2. Why was Egypt controlled by the British from 18

Baring's 'Mission in Egypt'

  • Lie maintained that Egypt was a province of Ottoman ruled by its own khedive but khedive unable to make decisions without British consul general.
  • Nationalists in Egypitan army fell + British reformed finances to ensure stability.
  • Baring consul genreal 1883-1907: wanted fundamental changes in agricultural infrastructure.
  • Realised the Egyptian gov was incapable of self-governance, lengthy occupation needed.

The emergence of radical Islam in the Sudan 

  • Convinced British not to withdraw as Egyptian control of Sudan was faltering.
  • 1873- Khedive Ismail appointed Gordon as Gov general of Sudan (anti-slavery) but resigned when Ismail was deposed and order was lost.
  • 1881- radical jihadist leader Mahdi emerged, intent on driving out Egyptian-ottoman overlords.
  • 1883- wiped out all but 300 of 7,000 troops under Hicks: British convinced Egypt lost control.
  • British uninterested in Sudan but didn't want it controlling Cairo/Alexandria so emergence of Mahdi reduced chances of withdrawal.
7 of 15

3. Why was Egypt controlled by the British from 18

The collapse of liberalism in Britain 

  • Gladstone's commitment to home rule in Ireland caused Liberals to split= Tories dominated.
  • Salisbury new PM wasn't carried away by imperial rhetoric- frustrated by presence in Egypt.
  • Unprepared to give French potential strategic advantage in North Africa and aware of patriotic sentiments stirred up my Mahdi actions.
  • Was prepared to sacrifice building projects there if he could protect British interests there.
  • 1887-89: worked w/Turkey, France, Germany so they could re-enter Egypt if necessary.
  • 1887- agreement for withdrawal reached w/Constantinople Convention, French + Russians threatened Sultan with invasion of Syria if Britain re-entered; Salisbury concluded that their strategic interests could only be guaranteed by remaining.

The work of Sir Evelyn Baring 

  • Little patience of oriental mind, convinced Egypt's future rested on developing agriculture.
  • Implemented financial controls/reformed admin + agricultural systems.
  • Incompatible w/Gladstone + Salisbury's attempts to withdraw: was destabilising peace between Great Powers, risk of move involvement in Africa, occpuation's dubious legality.
8 of 15

4. Why was Egypt controlled by the British from 18

Achievement of Baring's reforms 

  • Financial controls restored Egyptian gov's solvency by 1887: London convention loaned 9mil in 1885, 8mil spent on stabilising debt and 1mil on irrigation/drainage of canal flood plains.
  • 8% of gov revenue was spent on agriculture to improve the lot of fellahin.
  • Baring put off fundamental taxation reform till a full land survey was done and the system's inequality wasn't adressed till then- agriculture boosted by development delayed by land tax.
  • Limited investment in Education- refused to fund secondary education so limited upward mobility of fellahin and raised tuition fees in 1901 to decrease enrolment in primaries.
  • Underestimated strength of nationalism- succession of Tewfik's son 1892 saw return of Egyptian nationalism and went to France to influence foreign opinion against British rule.
  • Baring was oblivious to significance of Fellahin nationalism- reforms limited their nobility.
  • Baring left in 1907; some agricultural/economic performs but nationalism was rife.
9 of 15

1. Why were the British drawn further into the Nil

10 of 15

1. Why were the British drawn further into the Nil

The problems of the Sudan

  • As Ottoman declined, Egyptian rulers power grew and from 1821, Egyptian control over Sudan changed to admin control/formal occupation.
  • 1873: Khedive Ismail appointed Gordon as gov of Equatorial Provinces of Sudan to end slave trade; made progress but destabilised economy (part of his modernisation programme).
  • Gordon resigned in 1880 and subsequent governors had limited control over fractured society.

The Mahdi of Sudan

  • Rise of militant Islam under Mahdi in 1881 further destabilised area- capitalising on Sudanese resentment of Egyptian's oppressive taxes.
  • Due to: efforts to restrict slave trade, favoritism, Mahdi's radicalism, non-Muslims in Turco-Egyptian regime.
  • Inadvertent result of Gordon's attack on slave traders- removed only local leaders who could've provided effective opposition to Mahdi.
  • Egyptian forces launched numerous operations against him but Hicks force of 8,000 in 1883 were wiped out bar 300.
11 of 15

2. Why were the British drawn further into the Nil

Gladstone's concerns and policy 

  • Gladstone/Baring feared Sudan problems would destabilise financial consolidation of Egypt.
  • Prepared to cut Sudan loose to maintain control in Egypt- neccesary evacuation of Egyptian garrisons in Sudan as they couldn't fund cost of trying to maintian order.
  • No strategic/economic interests (economic basis was slavery and rise of Mahdi).
  • 1884- Gordon was dispatched to Sudan to organise evacuation, a year later Mahdi broke out though British fortifications at Khartoum and entire evacuated garrison was wiped out.

General Charles Gordon: mission in Sudan 1884-85

  • Hugely energetic in efforts to end slave-trade in Sudan 1870s- knew area well.
  • Intention was to generate publicity to change gov policy from evacuation to intervention but hard to enforce without adequate reinforcement which London/Baring refused to sanction.
  • Gordon, rather than withdrawing garrison, spent time wiring plans to London.
  • Mahdi came and he refused to withdraw so relief opperation needed; arrived 2 days late.
  • Siege of Khartoum: mahdi broke through fortifications/entire garrison killed.
  • Public blamed Gladstone for delay in relief dispatch: renamed MOG.
12 of 15

3. Why were the British drawn further into the Nil

  • Contributed to Gladstone/Liberals defeat in 1885 Genera Election.
  • Long-term: desire to avenge Gordon made a deep impact on important decision makers.
  • Was successful as governor as he quashed revolts against khedive/surpressed slave trade, mapped Nile as far as Uganda but destabilised economy as slave traders were members.

The conquest of Sudan 1898

  • 1896- Salisbury ordered campaign to secure source of Nile; led by Kitchener.
  • To protect British interests in Egypt (secure route to India), had to control source of Nile.
  • 2 threats to British interests in the region:
  • 1: Anglo-French rivalry= in control of Nile's headwaters (power politics).
  • 2: Fears of newly emergent mahdist forces/Pan-Islamic nationalism.
  • 1896- expedition launched under Kitchener to address the threats as defeat of Italians by mahdist forces at Battle of Adowa convinced Salisbury to act.
  • Expedition was to ensure supply lines remained intact and to culminate in conquest of Sudan/defeat of Mahdi at Omndurman.
13 of 15

4. Why were the British drawn further into the Nil

Fear of French occupation 

  • 1890- British declared Nile was its 'sphere of influence'; German, Italy, Belgium recognised this but France didn't so Salisbury wanted to thwart French expansion by presence in Sudan.
  • Convinced occupation must be maintained as Russia posed a threat to the Med and French/Russian threats to Sultan of invading Syria + Armenia.
  • The White Nile linked Egypt w/Britain's colonies in East Africa.
  • 1892- 120 French met Kitcheners 1,500 men at Fashoda: Salisbury instructed him to est. British claim over entire Upper Nike.
  • Both sides referred matter to London/Paris: navies were mobilised so French drop claim.

The role of General Horatio Herbert Kitchener 

  • In failed relief effort to extricate Gordon from Khartoum; learned lessons from this.
  • Initial objective was Dongola but positive reports of expedition meant Salisbury expanded it to include retaking of Sudan- Mahdi defeated and Khartoum retaken.
  • Ordered tomb of Mahdi to be opened and head to be decapitated and failed to reissue command to soldiers to spare wounded.
14 of 15

5. Why were the British drawn further into the Nil

  • Kitchener's actions in Sudan/use of concentration camps in Boer War outraged anti-imperialists but was hugely popular with the public and was secretary of war in WW1.

The significance of Omdurman: 2nd September 1898

  • Salisbury's long-term goal: destruction of mahdi, Kitchener's Maxim gun achieved this at battle.
  • 10,000 Mahdist forces dead, 13,000 prisoner and 5000 wounded, only 47 British dead.
  • Churchill criticised Kitchener for not reissuing order that wounded soldiers be spared.
  • Behaviour of British towards French at Fashoda and mahdist forces at Omdurman contrasted: British now had effective control of entire Nile and Sudan became part of Empire although the ficiton that Sudan was ruled by Egypt was maintained during veiled protectorate.
  • Due to Britain's advanced weaponary/equipment they only had 382 casualties.
  • Causes of savagery: Kitchener's veneration of Gordon, swift annexation of Sudan and testing of new military equipment.
15 of 15

Comments

eleanorrees471

Report

I appreciate the effort but please refrain from entering incorrect facts as it could seriously inhibit the learning of others A-level student. Egyptian nationalism didn't 'develop' it was always present do not be indoctrinated by the western perception of the struggles that the Egyptian encountered. Do not be so ignorant as labelling their nationalism as developing as if it had never existed absolutely disgusting.

jackmcgee41

Report

To the comment above. This is the language it uses in the textbook and on the syllabus and is valid and all the facts are from the A-level textbook.

Similar History resources:

See all History resources »See all The British Empire and the fall of colonialism resources »