The 'Golden Age' of the Weimar Republic, 1924-1928

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Stabilisation of the Currency

  • August 1923 Cuno's government collapsed, at the height of the hyperinflation crisis. They were replaced by Gustav Stresseman's government ( great coalition) which included parties from the left and the right ( DDP, Centre and DVP). 
  • Stressemanns time in office was short however productive by the end currency stabilised, hyperinflation under control and attempts to overthrow the government failed.
  • His main priority to stabilise the economy was achieved in 3 steps: 
  • Ended passive resitance in the Ruhr (allthough widly unpopular) meant they were no longer paying wages for people not working, reducing government expenditure which was needed.
  • Novermber 1923 under Hjalmar Schact the new currency Rentenmark was introduced, replacing the worthless reichsmark. 1 Rentenmark= 1 trillion Reichsmark
  • Without sufficient gold reserves to support the new economy placed mortgage on industrial and agriculture land.Government kept tight control on the amount in curculation.
  • However by August 1924 the Rentenmark officially became the Reichsmark backed by gold reserves ( maintained at 30% of the value of reichsmark in circulation). New currency established abroad and at home. 
  • They went on to cut expenditure and raise taxes (individuals and companies), salries of government cut and 300,000 civil servants lost their jobs. Reducing government debt and increasing confidence. from 1923-24 bancrupcy of buisnesses reliant on credit largely increased. Those who lost savings in the inflation gained nothing from the new currency.
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Reparations and the Dawes plan

  • Sorting out the reparations was key to stabilising Germanys economy. 
  • November 1923 Stressemann asked allies to set up committee to help Germany's repayment problems. Americans wanted Germany to pay as the money would be given to US to repay loans. So Banker Charles Dawes was made head of the comittee. 
  • The dawes plan was finalised in April 1924, Germnay still to pay same amount of reparations (£6.6 billion) however in more manageable payments. 
  • Amount paid per year reduced slowly increase payments then pay amount relevent to industrial performance until 1929 where they would review the situation. Also recieve loan of 800 million marks from the US to support Germany and invest in infrastructure.
  • Right wing groups hated the plan as they believed in not paying reparations at all, Stressemann himself believed it to be an 'economic armistice'. Although it was eventually agreed in July 1924.
  • showed that the allies accepted Germnays problems and gave them loans to rebuild economy.
  • After the Frenchh finally left the Ruhr 1924-25 German optimism increased.  
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The Extent of economic recovery

  • By 1925 Germany was becoming more stable due to the new currency, dawes plan and Schachts work at the Reichsbank to increase interest to attract foreign investors. US loans also stimulated the economy and industrial output was growing. 
  • However by 1928-29 economy was shrinking and investment was decreasing (factories) 
  • Advances were made in the chemical, car and aeroplane industries.
  • Loans helped the development of new buildings (schools, houses, roads) and new schemes to build affordable housing were set up to create crucial future political stability.
  • More money was also spent on welfare and health improvements. In 1924 new relief launched.
  • Number of strikes in industry reduced partially due to the new law of compulsury arbitration which allowe an independent arbitrator to resolve disputes. Employers resented the states intervention in their companies and believed the arbitrators to be biased towards workers.
  • In 1928 following a decision by an arbitrator for workers to have a small wage increase, the employers refused to pay and loacked out it's workers. The workers were supported and paid by the government during the 4 week lock out.
  • Living standards hugely increased for many paticulary workers,especially those in trade unions, as wages also increased by 1928 they increased by 12 % 
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Limitations and agriculture

  • Stressemann in 1929 believed the economy to be only flourishing on the surface due to many short term loans and increasing unemployment due to general spending cuts of companies.
  • The mittlestand didnt benefit from the golden age as they'd become bankrupt due to hyperinflation and didn't benefit fully from the new economic climate. 
  • By late 1920's industrial wages mateched if not exceeded middle class wages as they didn't have the same wage rises as the industrial workers. 
  • Farmers also gained little during economic recovery, due to a worldwide agriculture depression food prices kep low so few farmers profited from their lands.
  • Smaller peasant farmers tended to hoard monay which was wiped during inflation. 
  • After 1923 the state made it easier for farmers to borrow money, this lead to them just accumulating debt as they gained no profit so couldn't keep up with repayments.  
  • Government tried to help by introducing high import tarriffs, controls and subsidies but these weren't high enough. 
  • Their problems also worsened due to increased grain by 1926, following this many farmers became bankrupt and lost their land as to repay loans.
  • In 1928 there was a small revolt protesting foreclosures (taking property if fail to pay) also low market prices. By 1929 production at 3/4 of pre war levels. 
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Young plan

  • The Dawes plan was temporary and the French remained occupying the Rhineland until a permanent decision on reparations had been decided 
  • Stressemann ( now Foreign minister) decided the issue should be handled by an international comittee headed by US businessman  Owen Young.
  • They met in Paris with Schacht (Germany representitive) and produced a final report on the reparations. 
  • Germany would continue paying reparations until 1988, the total amount was reduced to £1.8 billion but the annual payment increased. All foreign control over reparations was relinquished and the German Government were made responsible for paying. 
  • In return France and Britain left the Rhineland by June 1930.
  • This new plan annoyed nationalist parties in Germany and Hugenburg (new head of DNVP) produced a nationwide campaign against the plan. They drew up the freedom law and demanded a national referndum to be held. This law made anyone who signed the war guilt clause be held for treason and reject the clause in the Treaty of Versailles.
  • Their petition gained over 4 million signatures. The freedom law was defeated by the Reichstag and lost in the referendum however 13.8 % voted for it showing the depth of support for the right wing. Hitlers role in the campaign, financed by Hugenburg, also made him a National political figure. . 
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Social Welfare reform

  • Due to the new found freedoms of the Weimar Republic Germany faced a conflict between those who embraced the changes and those who relished their traditional values.
  • 1924- Public Assistance System modernised provinding help to the poor and desitiute
  • 1925- State Accident insurance system setup by Bismark was extended to cover occupational diseases as well as injuries at work.
  • 1927- National insurance system set up giving benefits for the unemployed financed by workers and employers.
  • For many the reforms promised more than they delivered, the system was very expensive and by 1926 was covering 900,000 war orphans, 800,000 war veterans and 360,000 war widows. In addition to old age pensions and following 1927 the unemployed benefits aswell.
  • This required expensive beuracracy to carry out these, taxes were increased but the rich were only willing to pay so much therefore to reduce costs many devices used to keep pay out low.
  • Means tests were tigntened up and snoopers were used to check on peoples situations, this caused increased delays on paying the benefits.
  • Those who needed the support felt their support for the weimar republlic was being undermined due to humiliation from the system.
  • Therefore those who depended on welfare faced hardships but didn't face poverty. The air of confidence being faced in cities such as Berlin wasn't widespread around Germany. 
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Women

  • Talk in Weimar Republic was about the 'New Women' who was free, independent, sexually liberated and visible in public life. Female deputies in reichstag increased.  
  • The new constitution allowed women to have the same voting rights and access to education as men as well as equal job (civil service in paticular) and wage rights. 
  • This alligned with the gender ratio as many young men had been killed in the war so less oppurtunity for women to marry. The war also allowed women to have paid employment. This gave young women diferrent aspirations as there were more oppurtunities.
  • However many people, some women in Germnay approved of these changes as they preffered the traditional view of women where the man decided a womens actions.
  • The League of German Woman in the 1920's had more than 900,000 members and promoted the traditional family and maternal values, echoed by churches and conservative parties. 
  • Womens suffrage didn't fully gain equality however they did bring womens rights to the heart of political debate and the Republic had a continuing struggle between new and traditional values
  • New Women were seen as scapegoats for Germany's economic and social problems. Blamed as double earners if both husband and wife worked seen as putting a man out of a job.Abortion was still illegal and the use of contraception was shamed by the church. 
  • No women in the reichsrat, no female party leaders and no women in the cabinet. 
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Young people

  • Young people were also a key issue which had a 'culture war' as in the new Weimar Republic it was believed that young people were breaking free from family, school and religion and instead turning to a life of crime. 
  • Children who were not chosen to attend Gymnasium Schools left education at the age of 14 and either began employment or an apprenticeship. However during Weimar years youth employment was low and apprenticeships were rare. Due to a baby boom 1925-26 the unemployed between 14-21 was 17% as this coinsided with the redcuction of workforces.
  • The welfare system helped and provided day centres to learn skills but they couldnt copensate for the lack of employment so many youths joined gangs to gain adventure and comradeship.
  • Although no private schools in Germnay the education was split with middle/upper class going to gymnasiums. Churches also had powerful influence over religous education.
  • Education reformers wanted to brak down this divide and provide free education for all pupils.
  • Main change was addition of elementary schools where they attened for 4 yrs then if they didnt pass gymnasium entrace exams continued at the elementary school for 4 more years.
  • However they werent able to remove church influence for the schools as supported by parties.
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Youth groups

  • Three main types of groups in Germany: 
  • wandervogel/ wandering birds : consisted of mainly middle class boys. Non political but highly nationalistic with a nice picture of Germany's past. Hated industrilisation and big cities. The group primarily hiked in forests, swam in lakes and rivers and camped out. Some ways rejected middle class values and found the freedom in wild spaces. Some even took out a more unconventonal lifestyle of nudism or vegetarinism. 
  • Church Youth groups : Both catholic and protestant groups. Catholics had multiple groups aiming at all sections of young people. protestants didn't give their youth groups as much attention and they had much less membership. In both their aims were to promote religion and instill respect for church, family and school. 
  • Political youth groups : SPD youth movement founded in 1925 hasd most members of any political youth groups. Young communist league was for children of the KPD members. Bismark Youth (DNVP) founded in 1922 reached 42,000 members by 1928 popular with protestant middle and upper classes, also had strong workers following in Berlin. Hitler Youth linked to Nazi party, slow growth in beginning by 1929 13,000 members. 
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Jewish

  • More than half a million living in Germany, 80% lived in big cities and were well educated. 
  • Many of them felt more German than Jewish and were hugely patriotic, so they believed in assimilation ( keeping culture but integrating with mainstream society)
  • Their influence during the Republic was immense in proportion to their population. They dominated every area they were part of.  
  • Prominent as Editors and in the media, also had a large amount of Jews in politics such as Hugo Hasse, Kurt Eisner (SPD) 
  • Jewish firms dominated industry but had little influence in the Ruhr/ Rhineland. Jewish banking families owned 50% of private banks. However their banking influence was declining. 
  • Jews were also paticularly successful in retail and owned half of firms involved in cloth trade, 
  • They made up 16% of lawyers and 11% of doctors which were especially high in Berlin 
  • Also had a significant impact in academia especially in physical sciences fronted by Albert Einstein and his revolutionary work. 
  • Many jews assimilated and married non jewish partners some even converted to christianity, however German people still viewed jews as alied and there was a gap between being assimilated and feeling fully accepted. Right wing groups were built on Anti-semitism but due to the golden age this was pushed to the sides but there was still fierce opposition. 
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Arts and culture

  • Weimar Germany allowed an era of Experimentation and innovation. Yet as usual not all Germans welcomed these changes. 
  • Nightclubs that mainly featured cabarets allowed people of different sexualities to openly display it. American jazz music also became more popular with many of them black. Comdians openly attacked authority and politicians. Many older people regarded this scene as disgusting and hated the American influence felt order and disipline had been destroyed. 
  • Expressionis art originated in Germany and were abstract and vivid in colour, this type of music also began to influence classical composers to convey powerful emotions. Literature was the same as writers adapted to a free form of writing and a common theme was revolt against authority . 
  • In architecture students were encouraged to break down the barriers of normal design and begin to use materials such as steel and glass. Taught to make the function of a building key in it's design ********* any ornamentations. 
  • Theatre incorpoerated expressionist ideas in productions and plays tended to attack capitalish and nationalism as well as war. 
  • Berlin became a centre for world cinema developing new techniques (later used by Nazis) Important figures many of jewish decent became important in the film industry.
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Elections

  • These years were much calmer politically than the previous ones, extremist parties had less support and political violence receeded. 
  • 1924 saw two elections , these showed increased support for the republic (SPD, Centre, DVP, DDP). May 1924 61% voted for pro republic parties and December 1924 67%. 
  • The Nazis first election was May 1924 where they gained 6.5 % followed by december where it reduced further to 3%.The communist party also saw a decline in their votes. 
  • Although right wing parties began to accept the republic and work within it. DNVP joined first coalition government in 1925. Although there general support was declining. 
  • The country was unable to provide stable coalition governments which commanded widespread support as support was spread across all the parties. Also rightwing anti-republic parties were gaining support putting them in a position where they could be a threat to the republic. 
  • By the 1928 election extremist and righwing parties were losing support even more while the KPD saw an increase from the december 1924 election. 
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Coalition Governments

  • From November 1923 to March 1930 there were 7 coalition governments, these governments were only just more stable than those from 1919-1923 despite extremist and anti democratic support declining. 
  • Only 6 governments from 1919- 1930 were majority, coalitions only survived aslong as the parties in them had some unity. 
  • This unstability meant they couln't plan for the long term instead had to act as each issue arose, this meant that trivial issues could wreck the cabinet 
  • The combinations in which the coalition worked were very limited as the SPD and DNVP wouldn't serve in the same cabinet and the moderate parties didn't have enough support for a majority 
  • In 1928 a Grand coalition was formed headed by Hermann Muller (SPD) it had the potential for a stabel government and was one of the longest coalitions 1928- 1930 however the parties only agreed on the government policies by 1929.
  • Even this was staunch with divisions over many issues (foreign policy+ budget) and only survived due to Muller and Stressemann's relationship.
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Political parties

  • This quiter time enabled pro-democracy parties to establish a stable democratic system that would be supported by majority of Germans. They failed to do this though ....
  • Deputies in the reichstag were chosen as part of proportional representation to represent a large area so didn't have any contact with it's constituents 
  • Deputies couldn't have any individuality so the reichstag became a sterile chamber remote from voters. 
  • Leaderships of the pro- democracy parties were also at fault as factional rivalries within parties began to cripple them, so when party members became ministers party committees didnt allow them to go on their own initiative.
  • Party leaders gave higher priority to the interests of the party and the groups which it represented rather than the wider national interest. This meant people lost support for the system and the democratic institute suffered because of this. 
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Political parties moderate

  • The left wing SPD remained the largest party in the reichstag through 1923-28, it had taken a leading role in the development of the republic so had an interest in the success of the republic
  • However they only took part in one coalition between these years , due to it's marxist foundations it was an uncooperating party on issues so not useful in a coaltion. 
  • Preferred to be opposition rather than in government as had support of trade unions and appealed mainly to industrial workers 
  • The centre party was created to protect the Catholics interests, due to this religous affiliation it had the support of people from varying classes and occupations. 
  • This made the party more cooperative but tended to cause divisions on socio-economic issues
  • They were vital to the republic and were present in all coalitions, Leader change in 1928 showed a move to the right as Henrich Bruning was less commited to democracy.
  • DDP was in decline, it appealed to academics and professionals so had a view of people who were intellectuals but politically limited.
  • It was full of disputes and had difficulty in conveying clearly what it stood for. Although it did support democracy and took part in all coalitions in this time. 
  • The DVP was commited to democracy and took part in coalitions, It also had support from academics but primarily industrialists. After stressemanns death the party drifted right 
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Political parties (extremist)

  • In the 1920's The DNVP broadened it's appeal from landowners to industrialists, professionals and some industry workers. Being Anti-democratic and nationalist and wanted to bring back the monarchy and dismantle TOV.
  • The DNVP refused to join most coalitions but due to internal conflicts and young members being willing to compromise they joined 2 coalitions 1926 and 27 changing their tactics
  • Although after noticable loss of support in 1928 election, they returned to their right wing days proven by Hugenburg as party leader who led them into alliance witht the Nazi's later on.
  • While in Prison Hitler wrote Mein Kampf and came to the conclusion that the way to power would be through gaining support not overthrowing the republic. To do this they needed the support of key groups such as the elite and army
  • Hitlers early release allowed him to rebuild the party (even though banned) by the end of 1927 the party only had 75,000 members and 7 deputies. To widen supprt hitler began to target rural areas paticularly the protestant north.
  • By october 1929 the party had 150,000 members and took control of first town council. revival
  • The KPD was largest communist outside of Russia, it had support in ports and industry and had a significant presence in the reichstag but was dedicated to overthrowing the republic.
  • It's movements were dictated by cominterm in USSR and concentrated their efforts on shaming the SPD which reduced anti-Nazi forces within the working class. 
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Election of Hindenburg as president

  • Ebert the first president of Weimar republic died on 28th February 1925, his successor would have to be elected as the constitution entails so a full election was to be held.
  • Unless a candidate won 50% of vote in first ballot a second one would be held where alternative canidates could be nominated.
  • In the election the first round showed no real winner with Karl Jarres (DNVP + DVP) taking the most votes and Otto Braun (SPD) with second most.
  • In second round Jarres withdrew in support of Paul Von Hindenburg who they wanted to stand in first place. SPD believed Marx ( centre) would be more likely to win than Braun so withdrew him and told supporters to vote for Marx.
  • Therefore 3 candidates remained but the left vote was split due to Thalmann (KPD) so the results were 48.3 % Hindenburg, 45.3% Marx and Thalmann 6.4%. Hindenburg won !!!!
  • Hindenburg was Anti democracy and a symbol of the past with his military experience and authoritarian view. People on the right believed it would be the restoration of the old. 
  • Short term this didn't occur as he stuck to the constitution and appealed to national unity.
  • His election reconciled anti democratic parties and the republic to give democracy a chance. However it didn't really change much as party politics was put over national agenda and cooperation was used for political advantage.
  • By 1930's Hindenburg was fed up of political manouevering during economic crisis so ruled mostly by decree. The republic was in the hands on someone who didn't believe in it .
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Attitudes to the republic

  • The only way for it to be succesful was through the support of the people 
  • The old elites, army, civil service and judiciary were opposed to parliamentary democracy and were loyal to the belief that the republic was created by the betrayl of the fatherland. 
  • This hostility was strengthened by signing of the TOV and economic/political crisis.
  • The election of Hindenburg increased the elites support but only as they believed he would steer the country back to it's old ways. 
  • At the other end industrial workers didn't believe the republic had delievered everything it had promised (equality and social justice) 
  • They also saw the use of the army to crush revolts was evidence that the democracy had failed
  • This meant that middle-class support for the moderate parties was key for the republic to succeed and lay stable foundations 
  • However the middle class in Germany was varied (politically, economically and religously), Many of them continued to prosper and support however many among the mittlestand had lost everything due to hyperinflation and welfare following this was low for them. 
  • Therefore they welcomed economic and political stability under Hindenburg and Stressemann but their resentment for the republic was increasingly worrying. 
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Gustav Stressemann policies

  • Following 1919 the one thing all Germans agreed upon was that the TOV was unfair and unjust, Germany belonged up with the great powers of Europe, so this unity carried through with foreign policy where the constant aim 1919-1933 was to revise the TOV
  • However the right believed this should be achieved by rejecting the TOV and rebuiding the military in preparation for regaining lost territory and becoming independent once again.
  • A more sensible policy was Stressemann's policy of fufillment where Germany cooperated with the allies on issues such as allied occupation and reparations in hope that they would later revise the treaty.
  • Stressemann understood that the reason for not revising the TOV was Frances suspision of Germany so his aim was to reassure France of Germany's peaceful intentions. This lead to the Locarno Pact
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Locarno pact

  • October 1925 European powers met a swiss city of Locarno suggested by Germany, Stressemann wanted restore Germany's international position and avoid hostility as Britain and France had been increaingly worried at Germany's industrial recovery.
  • France were suspicous but attended along USA, Britain and Italy (Russia refused) 
  • The Rhieland pact and Arbitration treaties make up the Locarno pact and were signed in London 1 December 1925. The Rhineland pact :
  • Germany France and Belgium respect the European borders as stated in the TOV
  • Germany keeps troops out of Rhineland as stated in TOV,
  • Britain and Itlay promised to protect Germany,France or Belgium is attacked by neighbours
  • The Arbitration Treaties: germany agreed that any dispute between them and France, Belgium, Poland and Czechoslovakia would be settled by a concillation commitee
  • France signed Treaties of 'Mutual gurantee' with Poland and Czech that France would ensure that Germany didn't break the previous agreement.
  • Also agreed any conflicts about western borders would be referred to the league of nations, also france was not allowed into Germany if they disputed with Poland or Czechoslovakia.
  • Allowed Germany to accept their loss of lands and reassured all countries that previous events wouldnt be repeated (WWI and Ruhr invasion) France also left Rhineland, It was a success however right wings saw it as appeasment and that he gave too much to allies. 
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Relationship with USSR

  • While Germany left the commuinist uprising with a parlimentary democracy USSR went the other route and became the first communist state where the rights of people were less than those of the state. 
  • Although both countries were defeated in war and faced harsh peace treaties. 
  • They were both threatened by an independent Poland which contained USSR + German land, Both were refused from the LON and outcast by the allies. 
  • Many in Germany saw these similarities as a reason for Germany and USSR to work together more, such as Walter Rathenau who in 1922 negotiated the Treaty of Rapallo with Russia.
  • It resumed Trade and economic cooperation between the two countries and restored diplomatic relations. Any outstanding claims for war damage were dropped, also Germany were able to develop new weapons and train pilots in Russia out of the Allies scrutiny.
  • The treaty also impied support in tackling Poland. The allies weren't happy with the treaty which showed Germany's way for getting around the TOV.
  • April 1926 they renewed this treaty in the form of The Treaty of Berlin which was mostly the same except the addition of if the USSR were in war Germany would remain neutral (unless USSR were the agressor)
  • This followed a year after locarno pact showing Stressemanns aims to regain eastern front which required Russia's support (they'd resist any changes they didn't agree with)
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Extent of Disarmament

  • To ensure that Germnay abided with the Disarmament part of the TOV the Inter- Allied Control Comission (IMCC) was set up in Germany to monitor their disarmament. 
  • The disarmement clause angered German people as Allies were able to keep their large armys
  • As in treaty of Rapallo Germany were able to get round this clause along with Russia they built Submarines in Spain and tanks and artillary in Sweden.
  • This didn't build Germany a full army with unlimited weapons but it allowed them not to fall behind the Allies. 
  • Although Rhineland had to be disarmed the polish corridor was being fortified. Men were enlisted for short intesive Army training to get round the limit but gave them a reserve of highly trained men. They also funded many paramilitary groups which built up reserve force.
  • The military also began to plan with USSR an attack to gain Poland, Politicians turned a blind eye to this as they did to most of rearmament. 
  • 1928 Germany signed the Kellogg- Briand pact with France and USA in which states gave up offensive wars to resolve disputes, many other countries signed. 
  • The pact was symbollic as an international peace agreement however it had no way of enforcing so had limited effectivness.
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End of Allied occupation

  • All Germans wanted the removal of Allied forced from German soil and by 1930 Stressemann had achieved this by his policy of fufillment 
  • The French remained suspicous though and there removal was step by step involving compromise and concession from both sides. 
  • Occupation withdrawn from zone one in 1926 and the IMCC also removed from Germany. 
  • Once the young plan had been agreed in 1929 it was clear for the removal of the remaining forces , zone 2 in 1929 and zone 3 in 1930.
  • This was five years ahead of the scheduled removal in the TOV.
  • Although Stressemann died in 1929 missing the full removal, the success was due to his policies. 
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