Research methods (Choice of methods and the research process)

Positivists -> they see our behaviour as a result of social forces shaping what we do. They believe that there is a measurable social reality. They aim to find out the causes of our behaviour.

They use standardised methods of research (e.g questionnaires, structured interviews, structured observations and official statistics). 

They favour reliable and representative qualitative data.  They use it to identify patterns and trends in behaviour from which they produce cause-and-effect explanations (like those found in sciences).

Interpretivists -> believe that there is no measurable reality, just the subjective meaning that social actors give to events. Consequently, they aim to find the actors' meanings.

They favour open-ended research methods that produce valid qualitative data (unstructured interviews, participant observations and personal documents).

They try to allow the participants to explain their own views without imposing their own meanings onto them.

There are three key concepts that judge the usefulness of a research method:

Reliability -> to be reliable, a method must be replicable (achieve the same results regardless of who is recreating the research). Reliability means using standardised forms of measurement. 

Positivists favour a scientific approach and thus they use reliable methods such as experiments, questionnaires and structured interviews. They believe observations and unstructured interviews are unreliable as they are standardised and cannot be recreated.

Representativeness -> to be representative, the characteristics of the sample must be the same as those found in the wider group. This allows the researcher to make generalisations. Positivists emphasise the importance of representativeness as they focus on patterns that can make cause-and-effect statements about social behaviour.

Validity -> this is how authentic the data is, how 'close to reality' it is. It is emphasised by interpretivists who use methods such as unstructured interviews or participant observations to try to learn the actors' real meanings. They reject standardised methods as they do not reveal the truth. 

Primary data:

- Is collected by the sociologist themself for their own purposes.

- Can be used to obtain a 'first-hand image' or something or to test a hypothesis. 

- Methods for gathering primary data involve social surveys/ participant observation/ experiments. 

- ADVANTAGE = can be tailored to exactly what the researcher needs. DISADVANTAGE = can be costly and time consuming to gather.

Secondary data:

- Is collected by someone else for their own purposes but can be used by the sociologist.

- Sources include official statistics or documents

- ADVANTAGES = can be quick and cheap, can provide a large sample. DISADVANTAGE = may not answer what the sociologist is trying to discover. 

Quantitative data: information in a numerical form. e.g official statistics (prefered by interpretivists).

Qualitative data: words, explanations. These give a feel of what something is like and can't be measured, e.g unstructured interviews (preferred by positivists). 

Quantitative primary sources:                               Quantitative secondary sources:

Questionnaires / structured interviews                   Offical statistics

Qualitative primary sources:                                   Qualitative secondary resources:

Participant observation / unstructured interviews      Letters / newspaper articles. 

Three factors influence a sociologist's choice of research method: the methodological preference of the socialist, the practical aspects of the research and ethical concerns. 

Methodological preference:

A researcher's choice of method is influenced by their methodological perspective- their view of what society is like and how we should study it.

Positivists -> prefer quantitative data, try to discover patterns of behaviour and see sociology as a science. They favour structured techniques e.g questionnaires as they produce reliable and representative data. 

Interpretivists -> prefer qualitative data, try to understand social actors' meanings and reject the idea that sociology is a natural science. They favour unstructured methods such as unstructured interviews as they produce valid, qualitative data. 

Practical issues:

Time- some methods are more time consuming, e.g participant observations and unstructured interviews take longer than social surveys.

Finance - this impacts the number of available researchers, respondents and the amount of research time. Some methods are cheaper than others e.g postal questionnaires are cheap.

Source of funding - the sponsor may want the research to be done in a particular form (quantitative/ qualitative) this will impact the method used. 

Personal factors - researchers have different skills, abilities or commitments. E.g not all sociologists are skilled interviewers or may have children and therefore be unable to take part in lengthy research.

Research subject - some groups are less open (e.g criminals) / harder to access (e.g a grown man could not do a participant observation on a group of young girls).

Research opportunity - if an opportunity suddenly appears, the researcher may not have time to plan a lengthy method e.g lengthy questionnaires.

Ethical factors:

The British Sociological Association sets out ethical guidelines for the conduct of research:

Informed consent - sociologists need the informed consent of all participants due to the impact it can have on them.

Confidentiality - participants should be identifiable when research is published.

Impact to research participants - individuals cannot be harmed by the research or the impact of the research itself (e.g lose their occupation).

Vulnerable groups - special care needs to be taken when researching vulnerable groups because of age, gender, disability, etc. Additional consent is often required in these circumstances.

Covert research - hiding one's identity and lying to the participants poses ethical issues as it makes it impossible for them to give informed consent. However, some argue that covert research can be justified in some circumstances e.g when researching dangerous groups. 

Theoretical issues:

Validity - a valid method is one that produces a true image of what something is really like, allowing the researcher to get closer to the truth. Many argue that qualitative methods are the most valid.

Reliability - a reliable method is one that can be replicated to produce the same results (even when done by another researcher). Many argue that quantitative methods are the most reliable. 

Representativeness -  a representative method studies a typical cross-section of the group that the researcher is interested in. Quantitative methods are the most representative. 

Practical factors - some topics are difficult to study e.g big companies are often secretive etc.

Funding bodies- the sponsor's choice of topic may not be of interest to the sociologist yet they still have to research what they have been asked to.

Society's values - as the values of society change, so does the focus of research e.g the rise of feminism led to a greater focus on gender inequality. 

The sociologists theoretical perspective - this affects what they will choose to study e.g feminists will likely study gender issues.

Chance - sometimes the opportunity for research can be brought about by pure chance e.g hospitalisation as a result of illness allowed a researcher to study a hospital ward. 

Aims - an aim is a statement that identifies what a sociologist intends to study e.g often it is to collect data on a particular topic.

Hypotheses - some studies aim to test one (or more) hypotheses, this is more specific than an aim as it is a possible explanation that is tested by collecting evidence to prove whether it is true or false. Positivists favour a hypothesis as it is the start of a cause-and-effect relationship (this is something they explore).

Operationalising concepts- before research can begin, the sociologist has to define sociological concepts in ways that can be measured (operationalise them_). E.g 'social class' is an abstract concept but most sociologists would use the parent's occupation to dictate a child's class. This si called operationalisation.

The pilot study - this is the first draft that is made before carrying out any type of survey and is tested on a small group of people. This is done to clarify questions, their wording and to give the interviewer practice. 

Sampling:

It is often impractical/impossible to study the entire target group (because of size, time, etc). Therefore researchers only study a sample = a smaller part of the whole research population. 

Sampling frames = a list of all the members in the target group. It must be complete, accurate and up to date. Once obtained, the sociologist can choose from it:

Random sampling - simplest technique, the sample is chosen by chance. A large random sample should be representative of the general characteristics.

Quasi-random/ systematic sampling - every nth person is selected.

Stratified random sampling - the frame is broken down by age, gender, class, etc. The sample is then created in the same proportions e.g if 20% of the target group is female, 20% of the sample will be female too.

Quota sampling - the population is stratified and then the interviewer picks people based on a quota, they continue choosing until it is filled. 

Why are not all samples representative?:

Practical reasons: The social characteristics of all those in the target group may be unknown, this makes it impossible to create a cross-section. / It may be impossible to find/ create a sampling frame for the group the sociologists wishes to research e.g not all criminals are convicted. / Potential respondents may refuse to participate e.g criminals may be afraid of being arrested.

Theoretical reasons: Interpretivists believe that it is more important to collect valid data instead of representative data as they are focused on discovering actors' meanings than making generalisations. 

When it is not possible to obtain a representative sample, sociologists sometimes use:

Snowball sampling: the sample is collected through spreading the word e.g a participant may recommend a friend and so forth.

Opportunity sampling: choosing individuals that are the easiest to access e.g passers-by.

BOTH ARE UNLIKELY TO BE REPRESENTATIVE.

Researching pupils:

Hill (2005) states that there are three large differences when studying young people and studying adults:

- Power and status / - ability and understanding / - vulnerability

These differences raise practical, ethical and theoretical questions when researching pupils. 

Power and status:

Children have less power than adults = harder to be honest and open when giving their views.

In schools, the hierarchal system gives teachers power over pupils. They can influence what pupils are chosen for the research and what they say to create a positive image of the school.

Formal research methods (structured interviews, etc.) enforce this power dynamic as the researcher determines what and how questions are answered. 

Sociologists need to overcome this e.g group interviews may make pupils more comfortable.

Ability and understanding:

Pupil's vocab, confidence and self-expression are more limited in comparison to an adult.

They may often struggle to understand and expressing abstract ideas (much of sociology is based on abstract ideas) which make it hard for them to answer questions.

Limitations in understanding make it harder to gain informed consent. The researcher may be unable to explain the research in a manner that is clear enough.

Young people use language and words differently in comparison to adults = can create a 'language barrier'. 

A young person's memory is less developed than that of an adult, they may struggle to recall relevant events. 

HOWEVER, IT IS IMPORTANT TO REMEMBER, that pupils are not a homogenous group. They are all different ages, genders, ethnicity, etc. This can pose further issues in regards to understanding questions and being able to respond. 

Vulnerability and ethical issues:

Due to their limitations, young people are more prone to physical and psychological harm than adults.

The researcher should consider if young people are necessary in the research due to the risk of harming them. 

Most research guidelines emphasise that the need the consent of the parents, the teachers and the child themself. They may not be mature enough to decide whether they wish to participate, this makes it hard to gain informed consent.

The sociologist also has to consider the impact of the method e.g long interviews can cause stress to a child.

Due to the vulnerability of young people, there are more 'gatekeeps' controlling access to them. These include: parents, heads, teachers, local authorities, etc.

The more gatekeepers there are = harder it is to carry out sustained research. 

Laws and guidelines:

Child protection laws such as the Safeguarding Vulnerable Groups Act,2006, operates a vetting and barring scheme on adults working in schools.

This means that the researcher will be subject to Disclosure and barring service (DBS) checks which may delay and/ or prevent their research.

Organisations such as Unicef, Barnardo's and the National Children's Bureau have special codes of practice for researching young people.

They take the British Sociological Association's ethical research guidelines further to protect young people. 

An advantage of studying pupils is that they are legally required to attend school, researchers will know where and when to find their target study group. 

Issues may arise if the target group has an anti-school attitude and play truant. 

Researching teachers- power and status:

Teachers have more power and status in schools because of their age, position and experience. They have legal duties of care towards the people they teach.

The nature of the classroom reinforces their power, it can be viewed by the teacher as 'my classroom' and portray the researcher as a trespasser. 

However, teachers are not independent and there are people above them that control what they do.

Researchers may need to develop a cover as a supply teacher to research a school. Although this gives them access, they may not be seen as equal by the other teachers and therefore have limited access to information.

Impression management:

Teachers are used to being observed and scrutinised (e.g Ofsted inspections) and may therefore be willing to be observed by a researcher.

However, a large part of a teachers role is to put on an act and are often highly skilled in regards to impression management. 

Goffman (1969) analyses how social actors act differently in different situations. Seeing the 'backstage' of a teacher's life is likely to be found in the staffroom. However, this is difficult as it is a small enclosed space where the other teachers know each other well. Newcomers may not be trusted. 

Teachers know that critical comments they make about the school can impact their occupation and so they may be reluctant to answer the question honestly and may opt for portraying them in the best light possible. 

Headteachers can influence the results of the research by choosing teachers they know will speak of the school in a favourable manner. 

Researching classrooms:

The classroom is a closed space with clear physical and social boundaries.

It is a highly controlled setting. 

Consequently, the classroom behaviour the researcher may observe may not reflect what those involved think and how they feel.

In classroom interactions, teachers and pupils alike are skilled at hiding what they really think from one another, they may hide this from the sociologist as well. 

Classrooms are simple social settings with only two roles, the teacher and the pupil. This makes classroom interactions simple to observe and analyse.

Gatekeepers:

Access to classrooms is controlled by many gatekeepers. These include headteachers, teachers, child protection laws, etc. 

More gatekeepers = harder to obtain and maintain access.

Peer groups:
Young people may be insecure about their social identity and therefore willing to conform to peer pressure to prevent themselves from being ostracised. This does not reflect how they truly feel.

It can also impact how they respond to being researched. 

It may be necessary to supervise students during the research (e.g when filling out questionnaires) to ensure they are not being influenced by others.

Group interviews may be difficult to conduct as students may retain their opinion in front of their peers. 

Researching schools- school's own data:

The education system is scrutinised constantly by the media, parents, etc. It is highly marketised and surrounded by a large amount of pressure to compete against other schools. 

Public secondary data about schools is often produced by the schools themselves, therefore they are data-rich sources. However, school records are often confidential and hard to gain access to. 

Some data can be falsified to improve the school's image e.g truancy records or reports of racism are often falsified. 

Using them would mean that the sociologist's research is inaccurate- they risk losing money and time if they do not ensure the data is accurate. 

The law:

The law requires that young people attend school. This creates a 'captive population' a sociologist can study. However, headteachers and teachers may see the research as interfering with the study and refuse the researcher access.

The law requires schools to gather information on a pupil's attendance, performance, etc and so they store a large amount of data that can be useful to a sociologist. However, the legal duty of care schools have for students may restrict a sociologist's access to them,

Gatekeepers:

Headteachers and governors have the power to prevent a sociologist from researching their school.

Beynon and Atkinson (1984) note that gatekeeps steer researchers away from sensitive situations e.g classrooms where there is poor discipline. 

School organisation:

Schools are formal organisations with rules and hierarchies. Whilst researching, a sociologist may be seen as a part of the hierarchy. Students may see them as a teacher whilst teachers may see them as an inspector. This can make the sociologist an enemy and make it hard for them to gather valid data.

Nowadays many schools are single-sex, this may bring attention to a researcher of the opposite sex and make it hard for them to carry out their study.

Schools are complex and highly organised institutions with timetables and schedules, this can impact how the study is carried out e.g school holidays and exam periods may limit a researcher's activities.

The sheer size of schools can make it difficult for researchers to gather their bearings, some state that it takes months to memorise the building alone. 

Researching parents:

Parents are difficult to study as they are not a homogenous group. They are of different ages, genders and ethnicities. This can impact their willingness to partake in the research e.g pro-school mc parents may be very willing to take part whilst anti-school wc parents may avoid it.

Parental permission is required to research pupils, their willingness to agree can be impacted by the sensitivity of the issue. The more sensitive the issue = less likely it that parents will grant permission.

Parents may partake in impression management and portray themselves in a positive light e.g they may lie about whether they attend parents evening. 

Access to parents:

Parent-child interactions take place in the private home. These are often closed off to researchers and very difficult to study. 

Parents are located outside of the school-> hard to contact and research.

A school would not release the names and addresses of parents to a sociologist. They may agree to help the researcher and contact the parents via emails or letters but it is not certain that they will see/ respond to them. 

The researcher's own experience of education:

Having spent years in educational environments, sociologists may deem them as natural and take for granted events that hold sociological significance. 

The researcher was likely to have been successful in school and may find it hard to empathise with underachieving students.

Gender differences may make it hard for the researcher to empathise.