Sociology - Childhood

Childhood is 'socially constructed' (different in generations). This means that is has been created and defined by society and there are differences between different times, places and cultures.

The Modern Western Notion of Childhood: Childhood is a special time of life and children are fundamentally different from adults.

• Pilcher (1995) - separateness: She claims that childhood is seen as a clear and distinct life stage and children in our society occupy a separate status from adults. This is emphasised through laws regulating what children are allowed, required or forbidden to do. There are also clear differences from adults such as dress, products and services etc.
• Childhood is a 'golden age' of happiness and innocence. Children are seen as vulnerable and in need of protection from dangers of the adult world (kept quarantined and separated from it). They lead lives of leisure and play and are largely excluded from paid work.

Cross-Cultural Differences in Childhood: Wagg (1992) stated that there is no universal childhood. While all humans go through the same stages of physical development, different cultures construct or define this process differently. Support of the notion that childhood is socially constructed comes from Benedict (1934) who argues that children in simpler, non-industrial societies are generally treated differently from their modern western counterparts in three ways:

• Responsibility is Taken at an Early Age: Punch (2001)'s study of childhood in rural Bolivia. They found that once children are about five years old, they are expected to take work responsibilities in the home community. Tasks are taken on without question/hesitation.
• Less Value is Placed on Children Showing Obedience: Firth (1970) found that among the Tikopia of the western Pacific, doing as you are told by a grown-up is regarded as a concession to be granted by the child, not a right to be expected by an adult.
• Children's Sexual Behaviour: Malinowski (1957) found among the Trobriand Islanders of the south-west Pacific, that adults took an attitude of 'tolerance and amused interest' towards children's sexual explorations and activities.

This shows there is much less of dividing a line between expected children's behaviour and adult behaviour.

Historical Differences in Childhood: Aries (1960) argues that in the Middle Ages, the idea of childhood did not exist. Children were not seen as having a different 'nature' or needs from adults.

In the Middle-Ages, childhood as a separate age-stage was short and the child would enter the wider society on much the same terms as an adult, such as beginning work. Children were 'mini-adults' with the same rights, duties and skills as adults, such as the law making no distinction between children and adults and often faced the same punishments. 

Aries argues the elements of the modern notion of childhood gradually began to emerge from the 13th century onwards:

• Schools - specialises purely in the education of the young.
• Clothing - growing distinction between adults and children's.
• Childrearing handbooks - a sign of the growing child-centredness. 

Aries describes the 20th century as the 'century' of the child. He argues we have moved away from a world that did not see childhood in any way special, to a world obsessed with childhood.

Historical Differences in Childhood: Aries (1960) argues that in the Middle Ages, the idea of childhood did not exist. Children were not seen as having a different 'nature' or needs from adults.

In the Middle-Ages, childhood as a separate age-stage was short and the child would enter the wider society on much the same terms as an adult, such as beginning work. Children were 'mini-adults' with the same rights, duties and skills as adults, such as the law making no distinction between children and adults and often faced the same punishments. 

Aries argues the elements of the modern notion of childhood gradually began to emerge from the 13th century onwards:

• Schools - specialises purely in the education of the young.
• Clothing - growing distinction between adults and children's.
• Childrearing handbooks - a sign of the growing child-centredness. 

Aries describes the 20th century as the 'century' of the child. He argues we have moved away from a world that did not see childhood in any way special, to a world obsessed with childhood.

Historical Differences in Childhood: Aries (1960) argues that in the Middle Ages, the idea of childhood did not exist. Children were not seen as having a different 'nature' or needs from adults.

In the Middle-Ages, childhood as a separate age-stage was short and the child would enter the wider society on much the same terms as an adult, such as beginning work. Children were 'mini-adults' with the same rights, duties and skills as adults, such as the law making no distinction between children and adults and often faced the same punishments. 

Aries argues the elements of the modern notion of childhood gradually began to emerge from the 13th century onwards:

• Schools - specialises purely in the education of the young.
• Clothing - growing distinction between adults and children's.
• Childrearing handbooks - a sign of the growing child-centredness. 

Aries describes the 20th century as the 'century' of the child. He argues we have moved away from a world that did not see childhood in any way special, to a world obsessed with childhood.

The Disappearance of Childhood: Postman (1994) argues that childhood is 'disappearing at a dazzling speed'. There is a trend towards providing children with the same rights as adults. Postman see's the cause first of the emergence of childhood, and now its disappearance lies in the rise and fall of print culture and its replacement by television culture. 

The information hierarchy: Postman argues that childhood emerged as a separate status along with mass literacy, from the 19th century onwards. This is because printed words create an information hierarchy (a sharp division between adults, who can read, and children, who cannot). This gave adults power to keep knowledge about sex and money etc, a secret from children (childhood = innocence and ignorance). TV does not require special skills to access it and makes information available to both adults and children.

Evaluation: Opie (1993) argues that childhood is not disappearing: based on lifetime research into children's unsupervised games, rhymes and songs, they argue there is strong evidence of the continued existence of a separate children's culture over many years.

Postman over-emphasises a single cause (TV) at the expense of other factors that have influenced the development of childhood.

Childhood in Postmodernity: Jenks (2005) disagrees with Postman as he believes childhood is not disappearing but changing. He argues childhood is seen as preparation for productive adulthood. In order for this, children need to be nurtured, protected and controlled, within the education system imposing discipline and conformity.

In postmodern society, relationships are more unstable (e.g. higher divorce rates), which generates feelings of insecurity. This results in adults becoming more fearful for their children's security and adults become more preoccupied with protecting then from perceived dangers, such as child abuse.

This strengthens the view that children are vulnerable and in need of protection - sees it as a separate status from adulthood.

Evaluation: The evidence from this study comes from small, unrepresentative studies. Jenks is also guilty of over-generalising. Despite there being greater family diversity today, he makes sweeping statements that imply that all children are in the same position.

+ The March of Progress View: This view argues that over the past few centuries the position of children in western societies has been steadily improving and today is better than it has ever been. Lloyd De Mause (1974) stated 'the further back in history one goes, the lower the level of childcare and the more likely children are to be killed, abandoned, beaten, terrorised and sexually abused'. 

Aries and Shorter hold a 'march of progress view'. They argue that today's children:

• Are more valued.
• Better cared for.
• Better protected and educated.
• Enjoy better healthcare - in 1900, infant mortality rate was 154 per 1000 births, whereas today it is 4 per 1000 births. 
• Higher standards of living and smaller family sizes - there was 5.7 births per women in the 1860s, in comparison to 1.13 births per women in 2014. Also, up to the child's 21st birthday, parents will spend £227,000 on just one child.
• The family has become more child-centred - children are the focal point of family.
• Society is more child-centred with more media output and leisure activities for children.

- Toxic Childhood: Palmer (2007;2010) argues rapid technological and cultural changes in the past 25 years have damaged children's physical, emotional and intellectual development (e.g. junk food, pc games and intensive marketing to children). Concerns have also been expressed over children's health and behaviours such as the UK youth who have above average rates in international league tables for obesity, self-harm, drug and alcohol abuse, violence, early sexual experiences and teen pregnancies. Womack (2007) argued that 'toxic childhood' is only found among the poor.

Conflict View: Marxists and Feminists dispute this notion as they state society is based on the conflict between social groups and genders. Some groups have more power, status and wealth than others. Conflict sociologists see the relationship between groups as one of domination and subordination in which the dominant group acts as oppressors. They argue that the 'march of progress' view is based on a false and idealised image ignoring important inequalities:

• Inequalities among children - in terms of opportunities and risks they face (many today remain unprotected and poorly cared for).
• Inequalities between adults and children - children today experience greater control, oppression and dependency, not greater care or protection. 

Inequalities Among Children:

Nationality: Likely to experience different childhoods and different life changes. 90% of the worlds low-weight babies are born in developing countries.

Class Inequalities: Poor mothers are more likely to have low birth weight babies = liked to the delayed physical and intellectual development. Children of unskilled manual workers are three times more likely to suffer from hyperactivity and four times morelikely to experience conduct disorders (breaking the laws).

Inequalities Between Children and Adults: Conflict sociologists argue adults use their powers to oppress and control children - 'child liberationalism' came about because of their belief that children need to be freed from adult control.

• Neglect and Abuse: Adult control over children can take an extreme