social inequality

There is much debate about changes to social class. Marxists would claim that social class remains very importatnt as a form of stratification and inequality. Social class has a major impact on life chances. However other sociologists claim that other factors are more important eg. ethnicity and gender.  Other sociologists claim that we now live in a society where social class is less important as a form of identity because the social class sytem has changed.

Marxists claim that the social class sytem remains impportant.  There is a ruling class who ae wealthy and powerful and a WC who are paid less and exploited by the rich.  The rich benefit from their wealth e.g. best schools - unis-jobs.  As a result they maintain their power and wealth-social class reproduction.  The wealthy can also pass on their wealth to their children through inheritance.  Social class is also important because it influences a persons health and life expectancy e.g. the wealthy can afford good diet, physical activity and best medical care.

Social class also influences whether a person will become criminal e.g. not socialised properly-cultural dep.  Other sociologists claim that ethnicity is morje important as a form of S and I.  Ethnicity influences life chances in the following ways: recism-ineducation black boys labelled negatively.  Cultural deprivation.  Other sociologists claim that gender is more important this is because sexism including negative women stereotyping.  The distinction between the classes has blurred - muddle classes

Some sociologists explore changes to the WC.  Traditionally the WC were employed in factories doing heavy manual industrial work e.g. textile factories, ship building and steel works.  They lived in the new urban areas close to their place of work.  At this time the WC had a strong collective identity and culture - they were proud to be WC would support each other and spend leisure time togethere.g. by the cost Butlins.  The traditional WC was low paid and social mobility was limited.  Society was not meritocratic.  Most members lived in rented council housing.

However sincue the 1960's some claim that the WC has changed to what is called the new WC or affluent worker.  The skilled WC have experienced a significant ise in wages and standards of living.  Many now own their own homes and live in desirable areas.  Wtih increased income they can also consume more products which previously they could not affort.  This is an example of upward social mobility where the WC have become more like the middle class.

Embourgeoisement describes how difference between they working and middle class have become less .e.g they live in the same areas and have a similare culture - this is linke to middle classes.  As a result social class identitiy is now weaker and less important.  Other factors may be more important e.g. age, religion, gender, ethnicity etc.

NB the new wc provide evidence of social mibility and how society is meritocratic-functionalists.

An important concept is proleterianisation.  This concept refers to how middle class jobs have lost status and have lower wages.  Office work used to be a high status middle class job with a good wage and range of benefits and required a good level of education.  However office work has become deskilled with new technology such as computers.  With this less qualifications are neede and there are lower wages.  Today much office work is low paid and there are very few benefits.

The Underclass UC - In the 1980s the new right identified a new social class the UC.  The UC were permanently unemployed happy to live on benefits or to make money from crime.  There were high rates of single parenting and absent fathers.  The new right blamed the underclass for their own poverty and lack of SM.  They claimed the underclass were irresponsible lazy and happy to scrounge money from benefits.  Therefore this was a new SC at the bottom of the hierarchy. Some Sociologists are critical of the new right claiming that it is not their fault they are poor-SEE POVERTY NOTES

Stratification involves the unequal distribution of resources.  This includes:

WEALTH-The ownership of valuable assets which can include land, houses, savings and investments.

INCOME-refers tothe flow of money a person has including wages, benefits or pensions.  Most studies show that wealth and income are distributed unequally.  For example the wealthiest 1% own 33% of all wealth.  The poorest 50% own just 3% of all wealth.  Wealth and income are linked to life chances-achieving desirable thing e.g. good job.  Studies whow that a persons best chance of having a high income is to be born wealthy, this evidence would support the marxist niew of SCR.  

POVERTY-has been exlored by many sociologists.  material dep has an impact in a number of ways e.g. the WC underachieve in aducation as they lack access to resources a good diet, houses in good catchment areas.  Poor are stereotyped & targetted by police.  Studies show that certain groups are more likely to suffer from poverty.  Single parent families, single pensioners, the unemployed, the disabled, young people and people leaving school at an early age.  Poverty can be described in different ways.

Absolute Poverty - When someone has an income so low that they cannot afford basics needed to survive e.g. food and shelter (aka subsistence poverty).

Relative Poverty - income is below average so people are poor when compared to others.  They cannot afford the general standards of living that others may enjoy e.g. leisure activities, eating out, technological goods - smartphone.  We have seen that relative poverty is linked to crime as people steal to obtain consumer goods.  Relative poverty is linked to exclusion from activites and consumer goods.

Poverty has been measured in the following ways:

Low income -this is a precise and quantitative measure whichis officially used by most governments. This is linked to the poverty line - a measure of poverty that is the dividing line between the rich and poor e.g. 60% of national average income, this may be an objective measure but it does not take account of the extras that the majority in society enjoy.  It also does not include access to public services e.g. good schools and hospitals. 

Subjective measures-this is where people judge themselves to be in poverty i.e. it is a subjective feeling of lacking wealth or income when compared to others.  This is linked to relative poverty.

We have been seen that certain groups are more likely to be in poverty, however we must remember that poverty is not just linked to social class but ethnicit, gender and age.  e.g. pakistani and bangladeshe.  EMs and females are more at risk because of lower wages and barriers to (glass ceiling) women are moe likely to be single parents, young lack a job with a good income.

The life cycle of poverty - this refers to how people move in and out of poverty in different times in their lives.  e.g as a child and student they may be poor but move out of poverty by getting a good job, however unemployment, old age may make them move back to poverty.

Explanations for poverty-sociologist provide different explanations for the caused of poverty.  Some blame an unfair society while otheers blame the poor themselves.  The following explanations are important:

This view blames the poor for being poor i.e. it is victim blaming it explores the culture and lifestyle of the poor and how these values are passed on through socialisation.  Some sociologiest have identified the underclass who they claim have culture that lacks responsibility - they cant be bothered to work are happy claiming benefits and crime.  The UC are often demonised in the media as scroungers, criminals and the cause of many social problems.  We can criticise this view as a stereotyp-e that does not recognise other factors that cause povertye.g. material deprivation.

Poverty trap/cycle of deprivation-this approach explores how it is difficult for poort to excap poverty .e.g they ar trapped and have little change of upward social mobility.  There is a vicious circle where the poor live in deprived areas with poor schools, lack of support services and job opportunities.  Therefore this approach creates obstacles and barriers.  The solution is to provide support for the disadvantaged e.g. free school meals/pupil premium.

Marxists explore class in a capitalist society. This creates poverty for the working class who are exploited by the wealthy.

Poverty is maintained my social class reproduction. The poor face significant barriers to upward social mobility e.g educational failure due to MD and CD. The ruling class maintain power through the use of ideology - the poor don't realise they are being exploited so to do revolt. 

Marxists claim the welfare state e.g benefits and NHS serves to benefit the ruling class because, the welfare state makes society appear caring so the poor will not comlain. The NHS maintains a healthy workforce to be exploited and make profit for the working class. 

Poverty and The Welfare State

Some sociologists have explored how governments have tried to help the poor/ The welfare state is a government institution that provides care and finincial support for those who need it. This includes: Healthcare NHS, Welfare benefits, DLA, Unemployment benefits, state pensions for elderly and social services. It was introduced in the 1940's and was funded through taxation and national insurance contributions. 

Since it introduction it has come under great pressure which includes more older people in society. A bigger population and the rising cost of healthcare.  As a result it has changed in the following ways:

NHS - initially the NHS was provided for all peopl in the UK, free at the point of use and from cradle to grave.  However modern pressures and costs mean that people now have to pay for many things like prescriptions, glasses, dental charges, elderly care.

Benefits-initially many benefits were universal for everybody who needed it regardless of their wealth or income e.g. child benefit.  However due to modern pressures many benefits are now means tested-this means a persons income and wealth will depend on whetheer they get the benefit or not.  Means tested benefits are targetted on those who need it the mosjt e.g. the poorer or disabled. examples are child benefits and student finance.  However critics do not ike means tested benefits because the claim forms are very complex and many people who deserve they benefit will not make a claim.  Others claim that there is a stigma to these benefits which puts peole off claiming them.

Recent polocies to help the poor

In recent years governments have introduced policies to suppor the poor which include:

The new deal - introduced by new labour in the 1990s aimed to support long term youth unemployed.  Provided specific training, education, personal advisors and financial support.  This helped many young people overcome disadvantages and gain a job.  However critics claim it was not enough to overcome the true extent of poverty i.e. the poorest did not really benefit.

Pupil premium - introduced in 2012, it gave extra money to schools to support children from disadvantaged backgrounds.  Included support leaders, counsellors and 1 to 1 sessions.  This is good as it helps tackle MD and CD and increase life chances for the poor.

Sure start - introduced by new labour to help young children from disadvantaged groups included parental support and day centres with educational resources-attempt at attacking CD

Mobility refers to movement up or down the social hierarchy.  It can be inter-generational when a person moves to a different classfrom their parents e.g. they may be from a w.c background bit get on MC job.

Intra-generational-when a person experiences mobility in their own life e.g. they nay have a job and then may lose it.  

Meritoocracy refers to society being fair and equal and satus being achieved instead of ascribed based on effort and talent.

Functionalists claim soiety is meritrocatic but marxists & feminists do not.  The following factors encourage upward social mobility:

-seeing education as important  -  good qualifications  -  financial support from home  - meritocratic society  -  exceptional talent e.g. sport or singing

This refers to the unequal distribution of: resources, such as income, wealth and power.  Opportunities such as good education, good health and quality of life.  These opportunities are often called life chances  Different groups in society experience inequality and barrriers in achieveing life chances.  These differences include:

EMS-negative and recist stereotypes in the media e.g. black males being criminal, this can lead to selective law enforcement.  Absent fathers mean black boys underachieve at school because they lack appropriate role models.  They suffer from cultural deprivation.  Racism in the work place may lead to lower pay and less opportunities.

Class-WC suffer from material and cultural deprivation and so struggle in education.  Low income is linked to poor health e.g a lack of good diet.  The WC are more likely to be targeted crimianalised by the police.

Gender-ssexism in patriarchal society is an obstacle for women.  At work women face glass ceilinge.g. maternity leav and children.  They are expected to partake in the triple shift.

Age-agism young people face inequality through negative stereotypes and labelling e.g. as deviant and criminal.  Young people lack experience so find employment difficult

Age-agism young people face inequality through negative stereotypes and labelling e.g. as deviant and criminal.  Young people lack experience so find employment difficult - therefore they experience low incime especially those who do not have adequate pensions. NB all of the above factors are often linked e.g. a black wc young male may experiece several forms of inequality

SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

This refers to how society is dvided into a hierarchy of inequal groups.  This can be based on power, wealth, social class, gender, ethnicity, sexuality, religionetc.  Different socialogists provide different explanations:

Marxists - stratification is based on social class.  The ruling class are powerful and they exploit the working class.  Inequality is maintained through social class reproduction.

Functionalism - Society is meritocratic a persons social class or rnk is based on how hard people work and their effort.  In tis way social mobility - moving up and down the hierarchy of classes.

Forms of Stratification

The caste system - existed in traditional India - this was a very strict regis and closed system of hierarchy i.e. social mobility was not possible.   A ersons rank was called a caste.  This was given at birth and fixed for life i.e. ascribed status.  People were not allowed to marry someone from a different caste.  The loewest caste were called outcasts - they had very few rights and were treated poorly.  The caste system is now illegal but still exists in some part of India.

Slavery- when a powerful group takes ownership of weaker groups, the owner controls the slave and denies them rights.  The slave can be demanded to do any task, be sold, punished and not allowed to marry.  This is a rigid and closed system - no social mobility.  Slavery is now illegal.  However it still exists around the world and in the UK e.g. human trafficking for slave labour and sex workers still takes place - such workers are denied freedom, movement and often have their passports confiscated by owners.

Social class-a major form of stratification which is studied extensively by sociologists.  A social class is a g roup that share a similar economic position, income and wealth which is usually determined by occupation.  However there are different ways too measure social class which we will explore later

Over time the social class structure has changed - in the 19th century there were: ruling class who owned factories and middle class who managed factories and working class work in the factories.   However over the last 80 years traditional class divisions have become less clear - the middle classes - there has been upward and social mobility and strong class identities have declined.  Also today some say we have a new class known as the underclass.  Different sociologists have different views on the social class sytem which include:

Functionalism-the class system provides a positive function for society, it is a meritocracy where social mobility is possible.  A persons class is therefore based on how hard they work i.e. achieved status.  The class sytem provides an insentive for competition and for people to work hard to achieve goals.

Marxism - the class system is a form of inequality and exploitation , the fuling class are dominant in a capitalist society - they own the mans of production, society is no meritocratic and is closed, social mobility is a no-no!  The ruling class ensure the class divisions remain i.e. social class repro, from this view, social class is ascribed status that cant be achieved.

Max Waber - claimed that social class is main;y based on wealth.  However he also explored the importance of status and power, claimed status and power influences life chances - desirable outcomes that people whish to achieve e.g. good education and job.

Measuring Social Class

Sociologists have debated the best way to measure SC.  Some claim it is best to use occupation and income however others claim culture and class identity are bettwe ways.  The wollowing ways to measure class have been put forward:

The registrar general scale measures class based on occupation and distinguishes between manual and non manual jobjs.  Mnual jobs tend to be more physical,  less skilled and have lower incomes e.g. builder, coal miner and steel worker.  These jobs can be turned working class.  Non manual work tends to be higher skilled, paid and middle class. e.g. managers, lawyers and echnical professionals. There are criticism of this scale because:

It is oudated as the class system has changed e.g. manual work declined.

It is difficult to place people without jobs e.g.students and the retired.

Jobless married women were placed according to husbands job

People with the same job may have very different wealth and status

Due to these weaknesses the scale was replaced by the NS-SEC

NS-SEC - This scale also uses occupation to measure class.  However it includes more categories e.g. students and long term unemployed - so it covers morje of the population.  It uncludes the following classes:

The highest and bes paid managers e.g. company bosses.

Lower paid professionals like journalists and teachers.

Non manual lower middle class e.g. driving instructers

small employers e.g. local business managers and pub landlord

skilled  manual workers e.g. electricians/plumbers

unskilled manual workers e.g. road cleaners

the unemployed and students

There are still weaknesses with the NS-SEC scale which incude:

It is outdated as job structure has changed in the lst 30 years e.g. a decline in traditional manual working class jobs

Many non manual jobs are now low skilled and low paid e.g. call centres

Many traditional WC jobs now pay more than middle class jobs e.g. electricians

Cultural Lifestyle Measures of Class

This approach measures class in relation to culture and lifestyle.  Different classes have different cultures and leisure activities e.g. the upper class attend the opera but the WC may favour mass populare culture e.g. football, realilty TV and soap operas.

Weakness of this are that  It is Not a precise measure which makes comparison difficult, Cultural differences between classes has decreased and Culture changes over time

This approach claims the traditional class structure has declined - therefore social class identity is less important.  Also class divisions are blurred i.e. middle classes, therefore we should measure class subjectively i.e. people to give their own opinion of whcih class they are (or even if they identify with a class)

Weaknesses include

itis difficult to measure accurately

People may not understand what social class means