Social and emotional disadvantage

Around 1.5 million children across the world are institutionalised due to a variety of causes. Only a very small percentage are adopted.

Institutional care has a negative effect on physical growth, language, cognitive, social-emotional development, and brain development (Nelson et al. 2007).

Romanian orphan studies: in 1989, the communist regime fell, leaving behind 1000s of severely deprived children. Researchers investigated the consequences of deprivation, critical periods in cognitive, language, and social development. They found there was significant delays in cognitive, motor, and adaptive functioning (Kaler & Freeman, 1994). Attachment problems, inattention/overactivity, emotional difficulties, autistic features, cognitive impairments, peer difficulties, and conduct problems.

The effect of nurture (Clarke & Clarke, 1992): severely neglected infants saw major improvement following adoption, however recovery was incomplete for those adopted late.

Genie ('the feral child') was imprisoned alone in a dark room from 20 months - 13 years old. Severe abuse. She showed significant improvement physically and cognitively once rescued, but language problems persisted and regressed with changes (e.g, fostering).

Influence of genes: 5HTT (serotonin transporter gene) moderates influence of childhood adversity and stressful life events on development of psychopathology. Kumsta et al. (2010): effects of severe early institutionalisation are moderated by 5HTT genotype. Influenced by stressful life events in adolescence.

In summary: severe deprivation has consequences for physical, behavioural, and psychological outcomes. Effects improve over time post adoption with the most significant benefits being found in early adoptees. There is an interaction between nature and nurture.

Perceived racial discrimination leads to low self-esteem and peer rejection amongst ethnic minority adolescents (Verkuyten & Thijs, 2001). Cross-ethnic friendships might help protect individuals since they signify resilience and social support especially in culturally diverse settings.

Bagci, Rutland, Kumashiro, Smith & Blumberg (2014): Children of colour benefited in psychological wellbeing and resilience when they had higher quantities of cross-ethnic friendships.

Exposure to risk factors such as poverty, abuse, victimisation and neglect can be associated with clinical developmental disorders involving social impairments. This often results in disruptive behaviour in schools.

Students with social, emotional or behavioural disorders exhibit learning problems and behavioural deficits which can result in: unemployment, school drop-out, mental health issues, high rates of incarceration, and poor social support.

Conduct disorder: persistent pattern of behaviour that violates the rights of others (assault, vandalism, theft) or major age-appropriate societal norms (truancy, running away, deceitfulness). It si the most common psychiatric disorder in childhood. More common in boys.

Callous-unemotional traits: also known as 'early psychopathic traits'. May explain the causes of the most severe and aggressive patterns of antisocial behaviour. Traits include lack of guilt, absence of emotional empathy, and shallow affect. Increased severity of antisocial behaviour. It's associated with bullying, adolescent substance abuse, and future offending. Several studies show problems in processing fear and sadness in children with conduct disorder and callous-u traits.

Emotion processing and affective empathy deficits were found to be unique to children with CD/CU traits. Cognitive empathy deficits were found only amongst children with ASD. Children with CD/CU traits and autism suffer from distinct forms of empathy deficit