Skill Aquisition

Simple skills:

• minimal decision making
• limited information processing
• habitual
• few subroutines
• e.g. sprint start in swimming

Complex skills:

• 'perceptual load'
• require decision making
• need information processing - time
• a number of subroutines (practiced in training repeatedly)
• e.g. midfielder hockey pass

Open skills:

• in changing environments - movements have to be continually adapted
• perceptual
• need information processing and decision making
• externally paced
• e.g. football pass

Closed skills:

• stable, predictable environment - unchanging
• performer knows exactly what to do
• set patterns and have a clear beginning + end
• limited information processing time
• internally paced
• e.g, basketball free throw

Self paced skills:

• internal judgement
• the performer decides when to start the movment
• usually closed skills
• e.g. javelin throw

Externally paced:

• environmental factors determine when the performer starts the movement
• responses to environmental conditions
• usually open skills
• e.g. recieving a throw in badminton

Gross skills:

• large muscle groups
• don't require precision
• ballistic
• e.g. shot-put

Fine skills:

• small muscle groups
• intricate
• require precision and accuracy
• highly coordinated
• e.g. snooker shot

Discrete skills:

• a clear beginning + end
• well defined
• make up actions involved in a variety of sports
• e.g. penalty flick in hockey

Serial:

• group of discrete skills strung together
• make a new + complex movement
• e.g. triple jump

Continuous skills:

• unclear beginning + end
• end of one cycle of movements is beginning of next
• can be stopped at any point
• e.g. cycling

Highly organised skills:

• sub routines cannot be separated
• e.g. dribbling in basketball

Low organised skills:

• sub routines easily separated
• e.g. tennis serve

• Practice changes regularly
• Takes place in different environments or situations
• Different activities are performed in different ways
• e.g. hockey players passing in different situations

Advantages:

• ideal for open skills so good at autonomous stage
• best when skill already learned via fixed practice
• stimulates interest + motivation
• can help transfer of training
• helps to develop kinaesthesis + schema

Disadvantages:

• can be confusing for cognitive phase performers/learners because too many stimuli can lead to info overload
• basic skills must be learned first in fixed practice
• not effective in helping groove skill as effective motor programme not developed

• practice remains same as environment or situation remains same
• repetitive and in same environment
• e.g. pole vault

Advantages:

• ideal for closed skills
• good at cognitive phase
• develops motor programme
• can perfect skill
• helps groove + overlearn skill as forms S-R bonds, develops kinesthesis + schema

Disadvantages:

• doesn't prepare for game situation
• not suitable for open skills
• may become boring so can cause drive reduction
• could lead to overuse injuries

• continuous practice with no intervals
• e.g. continuous driving in golf

Advantages:

• ideal for discrete practice + simple, short duration skills
• good at autonomous stage
• good for more motivated + experienced performers
• helps groove/overlearn the skill as forms S-R bonds, develops kinesthesis + schema
• good for developing fitness

Disadvantages:

• can be tiring + boring
• could cause drive reduction or mental fatigue
• errors could increase due to continuous nature
• can lead to overuse injuries

• short burst with short rest intervals
• e.g. sprinting

Advantages:

• ideal for high energy continuous skills + complex/dangerous skills e.g. trampolining
• good at cognitive stage or for less fit performers
• helps understanding at associative and autonomous stages
• time for rest, mental rehearsal, reinforcement + feedback
• considered more effective than massed practice
• helps form S-R bonds, develops kinesthesis + schema

Disadvantages:

• disjointed activity may hinder or disrupt learning
• can be hard to regain intensity of practice after break
• long or frequent breaks can be de-motivating

• skill learnt in complete form so not broken into subroutines
• movement attempted in entirety

Advantages:

• gives entire view of skill + saves time
• helps to link subroutines + good for kinaesthetic development
• good for high ability learners at autonomous stage
• creates mental picture which encourages fluency
• good for high organisation, continuous + simple skills e.g. sprinting

Disadvantages:

• can be difficult to learn as too fast
• lots of information to process with chance of overload
• difficult for low ability, cognitive learners
• de-motivating if failure experienced
• unsuitable for complex skills e.g. triple jump

• skill broken into subroutines
• subroutine practised separately and then put together

Advantages:

• gives early success so raises confidence + motivation
• limits information to process
• good at cognitive stage as helps understanding
• safer for dangerous skills
• good for low organisation closed skills e.g. tennis serve

Disadvantages:

• takes more time than whole practice
• limits awareness of overall skill and kinaesthetic development
• difficult to transfer to whole skill
• de-motivating for high ability learners
• unsuitable for continuous skills e.g. sprinting

• parts of a skill are practised separately then combined gradually into bigger parts
• e.g. A-B-AB-C-ABC-D-ABCD

Advantages:

• quicker than part practice with similar advantages
• kinesthesis developed more effectively than part method
• transfer of subroutines more likely than with part practice
• chance to recap
• good for low organisation, serial and complex skills e.g. triple jump

Disadvantages:

• limited awareness of overall skill + limited kinaesthesis development
• transfer to whole skill still difficult
• de-motivating for high abilities
• unsuitable for continuous skills e.g. sprinting

• practice complete skill, split into sub-routines + practice whole skill again

Advantages:

• flexible method for all abilities and all stages of learning
• enables entire skill to be practised
• allows focus on weak subroutines
• good for low organisation + serial skills e.g. shot put + complex, open or closed skills

Disadvantages: 

• could be difficult for low ability learners low in motivation
• lots of information to process/chance of overload
• can be demotivating to return to subroutines
• unsuitable for continuous skills e.g. sprinting

Positive transfer:

• where one skill helps the learning and performance of another
• e.g. the arm action of throwing a ball transfers positively to the action of the racquet arm in a tennis serve
• transfers the S-R bond of one skill to another + helps to develop correct motor programme 
• effective if similar elements of both skills are highlighted by coach or if previous skill is well learnt

Negative transfer:

• where one skill hinders the learning + performance of another
• e.g. the stiff wrist required for a tennis shot transfers badly to the flexible wrist action required in badminton
• performer can respond incorrectly to similar stimuli or stimulus response compatibility is hindered
• performer can confuse subroutines of two skills
• difference in kinaesthetic feedback can cause confusion

Proactive transfer:

• where current learning will affect a skill yet to be learnt
• e.g. learning a smash in tennis can affect a new skill that looks similar like an overhead clear in badminton
• can be positive or negative

Retroactive transfer:

• where the current learning of a new skill affects the performance of previously learned skill
• e.g. learning of the badminton overhead clear effects the previously learned smash in tennis
• can be positive or negative

Bilateral transfer:

• transfer from limb to limb 
• e.g. footballer kicking ball with left and right foot
• can be positive or negative
• when positive helps attacker deceive defender e.g. stepping in rugby

Sporting example - throwing ball to goalkeeper

Manipulating or changing the environment to trigger the desired response e.g. roll the ball to left of keeper to trigger dive + catch

Uses trial + error e.g. trying different techniques of diving + catching

Shaping or conditioning behaviour e.g. correct technique of diving + catching becomes grooved or overlearned 

Forming + strengthening the S-R bond e.g. the learner developing a connection between the flight of a ball and the correct way to dive + catch

Giving positive reinforcement when the correct response is performed e.g. praising successful performances

Helps the performer to repeat the correct or desired response

Forms and strengthens the S-R bond

Positive reinforcement - presentation of a stimulus or satisfier to the performer, after desired response e.g. praise for a high work rate in hockey

Negative reinforcement - presentation of an unpleasant stimulus or annoyer to the performer, after an incorrect response + is withdrawn when the correct response is given e.g. when footballer successfully controls the ball  coach will stop annoyer

Punishment - presentation of very unpleasant stimulus to the performer, after an incorrect or undesired response e.g. substituting the player or reprimanding them for getting tactics wrong in a game 

Law of effect - reinforcement or pleasure will strengthen the S-R bond and so help learning e.g. if a good tackle in rugby is reinforced an S-R bond is formed but an annoyer or lack of pleasure will weaken this bond

Law of exercise - repeating or practising the movement strengthens the S-R bond and so will help learning e.g. the greater the number of times the successful tackle is made the stronger the bond becomes but a lack of practice weakens S-R bond

Law of readiness - the learner must have the maturity/the physical or mental ability to perform the skill before reinforcement can strengthen the S-R bond + if the learner is too young or immature or if they do not have the perceptual skills, the skill cannot be performed adequately and this can weaken the SR bond

Practical example - cricket bowler

Giving the learner the whole problem to solve e.g. cricketer needs to think about the situation before working out how to bowl

Optimising learning through thinking e.g. working out an effective solution adds to the experience of the bowler

Perception or intelligence - the player would understand how to spin the ball to deceive the batter

• goes beyond S-R bond
• based on understanding + problem solving
• no trial + error
• use of previous experience
• Gestaltist - considering problem as whole

Attention - must focus + this is benefited with a role model + verbal guidance e.g. watching the technique of ski instructor demonstrating the parallel technique

Retention - learner needs to remember the demonstration + this helped by repetition + mental rehearsal e.g. imagining or cognitively visualising the driving action of the leg in a sprint start 

Motor reproduction - learner must have physical + mental capacity to carry out skill

Motivation - the learner must want to copy the skill /lifestyle behaviour + increases if it is considered to be relevant or worthwhile or model of same gender

First stage/beginner stage

Learner tries to create a mental image

Visuals demo and verbal guidance important

Trial and error

Inconsistent 

Performance has errors 

Little conscious control / no spare attention

Progress made through reinforcing success

Success 2-3 out of 10

Second stage – intermediate

Longer – may never get past it

Fundamentals of skill are in place (the basics)

Fault correction – becoming more consistent 

Able to use feedback from coaches

Smoother and fluent movement

Able to react/change skill to meet environment

Some spare attentional capacity 

Success 5-7/10

Final phase – advanced

Fluent and consistent 

Well learned - habitual

Focus becomes different – beating opponent, tactics (spare attentional capacity)

Self correction - no coach needed

May return to associative stage if not practised 

Success - 9-10/10

Learner watches a model + demonstration

Advantages:

• forms mental picture
• increases understanding of movement requirements
• corrects errors
• motivates learner if role model
• good at cognitive stage

Disadvantages:

• only effective with good demonstration + not too complex
• should be supported by verbal guidance
• no feedback so not as effective at autonomous stage
• could copy negative role model 

The learner is told what to do with spoken instruction + feedback

Advantages:

• builds on knowledge gained by visual guidance
• helps develop an understanding of detail
• can focus on key areas + corrects errors
• motivates learner
• good at autonomous stage/phase

Disadvantages:

• not effective if too much/unclear/incorrect/too negative information given
• some skills too complex to be explained
• can be confusing at cognitive stage of learning

Manual - learner given physical support by teacher/coach who moves limbs/joints through movement

Mechanical - supporting the body through movement using equipment or apparatus

Advantages:

• gives feeling of movement/kinaesthesis + develops timing
• gives confidence + benefits dangerous skills
• helps to develop more complex skills at autonomous stage
• corrects errors
• effective at cognitive stage

Disadvantages:

• can limit proprioception/kinaesthetic development
• may give false confidence if becomes reliant
• learner can't correct errors themselves
• learner must trust coach/apparatus

Positive feedback:

• Advantages - good at cognitive + associative phases of learning + gives confidence 
• Disadvantages - ineffective if unspecific, imprecise, used to often or learner at autonomous stage

Negative feedback:

• Advantages - good at autonomous stage as tunes well learned skills + motivates
• Disadvantages - less effective at cognitive + associative phases as can be demotivating + impede learning if overused

Extrinsic (external) feedback:

• Advantages - good at cognitive + associative stages as helps understanding of correct pattern of movement + source of positive reinforcement
• Disadvantages - learner can become too dependent + less effective in development of kinaesthesis

Intrinsic (internal) feedback:

• Advantages - good at autonomous stage as helps fluency performer can focus on peripheral stimuli
• Disadvantages - ineffective at cognitive + associative stages as kinaesthesis hard to learn and the feel of the skill could be incorrect 

Terminal feedback - received when the movement is complete or after the training session

• Advantages - good for discrete skills e.g. free shot in basketball + time between skill + feedback allows reflection
• Disadvantages - less effective for continuous skills e.g sprinting + if given too late skill may be forgotten

Concurrent feedback - received during the movement

• Advantages - good for continuous skills e.g. sprinting + allows immediate correction + performance reinforcement
• Disadvantages - ineffective for discrete skills e.g. free shot in basketball when there is insufficient time during performance