Research Methods
- Created by: Honor
- Created on: 05-03-17 17:38
Variables
Independent - the one you want to change
Dependent - the one you want to measure
Extraneous - anything that needs to be controlled
Confounding - variable that was not accounted for
Experiment Types
Laboratory - Controlled artificial environment, the IV is manipulated and participants are randomly allocated. Good for high levels of control, high replicability and concluding cause and effect. Bad for lacking ecological validity and a higher chance of investigator and participant effects.
Field - Natural environment, IV is manipulated and mostly random allocations. Good for concluding cause and effect with a higher ecological validity and reduction in participant effects. Bad for less control over the EV, more time consuming to set up and random allocation may be difficult.
Natural - IV controlled naturally, no manipulation and no random allocations. Good for high ecological validity and useful where manipulating the IV would be unethical or impossible. Bad for concluding cause and effect as there is no control so lower replicability.
Types of Effects
Investigator Effects - experiment may do something to influence the participants to get the desired results
Demand Characteristics - participants start to realise the experiment so they change their behaviour accordingly
Social Desirability - when people answer questions differently just so that they are presented in a good light
Mundane Realism - Extent to how well it matches real life tasks
Question Types
Open - allows respondent to write their own answer to produce qualitative data. Good for rich, detailed data so they can express how they really feel in real life. Bad for analysing as it can time consuming and difficult
Closed - chooses their response from a limited number of fixed answers to produce quantitative data. Good for analysing as can be statistically graphed in less time and interpreted easily. Bad for its lack of richness and unclear on whether they understood the question
Self Report Techniques
Questionnaires - research method composed of a series of questions designed to gather information about a certain topic. Good for efficiency as researchers do not have to be present and can collect large amounts of data about what people think. Bad for social desirability and difficult to phrase questions that have the same interpretation for everyone
Interviews - Verbal conversation to collect relevant research. Good for allowing participant to freely express their opinion, interviewer can ask them to clarify what they mean and data is more rich and detailed. Bad for being more time consuming, requires skilled researchers and social desirability is still an issue
Interview Types
Unstructured - may have a set of discussion topics but are less constrained about how the conversation goes. Good for flexiblity as questions can be adapted and changed depending on answer and interviewer can ask for clarification. Bad for being much harder to analyse the data as it is all different and may take longer to conduct as there is no end to the questions
Structured - any interview in which the questions are decided in advance and fixed for all participant. Good for analysing easily and quickly conducting so more data can be collected in the time. Bad for being unflexible and lacking detail.
Aims and Hypothesis
Aim - general statement about the investigation's purpose
Hypoethsis - precise statement about the expected outcome
Directional (one-tailed) - hypothesis that states which direction the results will go in
Non-directional (two tailed) - less clear on the direction but acknowledges there will be an effect
Null hypothesis - when there is no effect or result
Operationalise - clearly defining what the variable is and how to specifically measure it
Case Studies
In depth knowledge about an individual of small group of people that are unique.
Studied with the aim of uncovering answers that the scientific world needs.
E.g. Clive Wearing could remember procedural memory but not his episodic
Good for being in depth and detailed and more ecologically valid as its in an everyday natural environment.
Bad for being population valid as individual differences may affect how well it can be applied and investigator effects may interept the information as their aim.
Ethical issues may also include lack of privacy as it is spread for research and having informed consent about being shared.
Experimental Design
Repeated Measures - when the same particpants are used in both conditions. Good for using less partipants, less time and the particpant variables are limited. Bad for needing more stimulus material, demand characteristics and order effects.
Independant Groups - particpants are randomly allocated to different condition groups. Good for having no order effects and reduced chance of demand characteristics. Bad for needing more participants, time to randomly allocate and cannot control participant variables.
Matched Pairs - pairs of participants are closely matched and are then randomly allocated to one of the conditions. Good for having no order effects, participant variables are minimised and there is less chance of demand characteristics. Bad for being difficult and time consuming to match and more participants are needed.
Sampling Techniques
Opportunity - selected by people who are the most easily available at the time. Good for needing less time to locate. Bad for being a small possibly biased population so cannot be generalised.
Volunteer - volunteers make up the sample, sometimes called self-selected. Good for having more variety so more representative and being less likely to withdraw. Bad for having volunteer bias as only certain type of person volunteers
Random - every member in target population has equal chance. Good for being unbiased as there is a equal chance for everyone and also higher population validity. Bad for taking time to locate and contact the particpants.
Stratified - sub groups are identified like age and chosen randomly within that sub-group. Good for being random but still representative of sub group and more variety of people. Bad for being time consuming to identify sub groups and pick them.
Systematic - using a predetermined system to random locate them e.g. pick every 1st and 3rd name. Good for being unbiased as it is using an objective system so investigator will not have influence. Bad for missing subgroups so may not be truly representative
Pilot Studies
Study conducted with a small sample before the real study
Good for helping the researcher identifying any possible problems with the method, design, instructions to participants and so on. Can also check quesionnair items are easy to answer and unambiguous. Can do all this checking without having to invest in a large amount of time and money for a full-scale study
Observational Methods X
Naturalistic - carried out in an everyday setting, does not interfere in anyway. Good for having high ecological validity and applying to real life. Bad for not controlling all the extranous variables.
Controlled - behavior is observed under controlled lab conditions. Good for having more control over extranous variables. Bad for having lower ecologicsal validity.
Covert - when the researcher observes in secret. Good for hearing the opinions that only a member of the study group may hear. Bad for having ethical problems as deception and consent may pose as an issue.
Overt - when the researcher tells the group they are observing them. Good as there is no ethical issues regarding consent. Bad as they may display social desiribility effects.
Participant - when the researcher joins in and becomes part of the group they are studying. Good for. Good for hearing the opinions that only a member of the study group may hear. Bad for reducing validity if they get too involved as they may produce a bias
Non-participant - whe
Sampling in Observations
Event Sampling - counting the number of times a certain behvaiour occurs from population in a given time frame. Good for not missing any behaviouir and being in depth and detailed. Bad for not being to record everything if too many happen at once and may be time consuming.
Time Sampling - recording behaviours in a given time frame. Good for being convient as the observer has time to record what they have seen. Bad for not being representative and may miss important behaviour.
Behavioural Catergories - specific type of behaviour which is deinfed before the study takes place and allows researchers to focus on a certain target so that the most valid and reliable data is produced
Types of Data
Qualitative - typically descriptive and cannot be made into statistics. Good for being in depth and descriptive. Bad for being harder to analyse.
Quantitative - data that can be made into useable statistics. Good for being easier to anaylse. Bad for lacking in depth and detail.
Primary - data collected yourself. Good for being more reliable and it can answer your direct research questions. Bad for being more expensive and not immediately available as it takes time
Secondary - data collected by someone else e.g. meta analysis. Good for being inexpensive, easily accessible and available. Bad for being outdated, potentially unreliable and may not totally answer your research questions directly like primary would
Summarising Data in Graphical Form
Histograms - bars are joined together with equal widths and uses continous data i.e. x axis will increase or decrease. Likely to be used in data analysis to show distribution of items in a data set
Bar Charts - bars are not joined together and bars are an equal width. The data is single and seperate and likely to be used when comparing classes or groups of data
Scattergram - more points in a cluster mean a stronger relationship. A forward slant means a positive correlation and a backward slant means there is a negative correlation. Likely to be used when a good visual is needed to represent a relationship between two variables.
Measures of Central Tendency
Mean - the statistical average. Calculated by adding up all the scores in a set of data and then dividing them by the total number of scores
Median - middle value of a data set. Calculated by putting the data in order and finding the middle score. If there is an even number, the two middle numbers are added together and divided by 2
Mode - most common occuring score. Easiest to calculate as the data is put into order and it is easy to see which one occurs the most
Measures of Dispersion
Range - subtracts the lowest score from the highest
Standard Deviation - tells us how far the scores are scattered around the mean
Big standard deviation - many of the data points are far away from the mean
Small standard deviation - data was closely clustered around the mean
Correlational Analysis
Investigates strength and direction of a relationship between two variables
Correlation Coefficient measure the strength e.g. +1 means a perfect positive positive
A correlation coefficient of 0 means that there is no correlation between the two variables
Good for establishing a relationship and the strength of the relationship so trends can be established
Bad as cause and effect cannot be established and the strength can be hard to interpret potentially
Content Analysis
Qualitative data cannot be analysed easily using measures of central tendency and dispersion
Aims to identify patterns and trends in the topics
Step 1 - Sampling the data e.g. picking every 5th name on the register for a book scrunity
Step 2 - Coding the data e.g. picking out criteria to meet like names on files and progress planners
Step 3 - Representing the data e.g. describing the instance in each category
Good for being true to life and representative so high ecological validity, less likely to be investigator effects as they are not there to influence the participants, easy to carry out and cheap
Bad for having researcher bias as one observer carrying it out may twist the data as it is not always objective, extremely time consuming and only describes the data and does not explain
Thematic Analysis
In order to identify themes so qualitative data can be organised and conclusions can be made
Step 1 - read every transcript carefully as all items are included. No notes should be taken and their persepctive should try to be understood
Step 2 - break up the data up in to smaller units. Each unit has a code and may have more than one
Step 3 - combine the smaller codes into larger themes
Step 4 - identify the most common themes. General conclusions can be drawn and made into summarised tables and graphs
Features of a Science
Science, which comes from "knowledge" in latin, is the systematic approach to learning more
Empirical Methods - when information is gained through observation or experiment rather than beliefs so its meaningful and not made up
Objectivity - not being affected by the expectations of the researcher and carefully controlling conditions. More objectivity makes it more measurable and eliminates bias
Replicability - repeating it and getting the same outcome makes the original results more valid. Important that procedures are recorded carefully so it may be followed again
Theory Construction - facts make sense when they are explained with a theory
Hypothesis Testing - theories can be altered through testing the validity and if support is not found then the theory needs to be modified
Inductive Method
Induction is reasoning from the partciular to the general
Starts with evidence which is then used to generate a theory
1. Observations
2. Testable hypothesis
3. Conduct a study to test the hypothesis
4. Draw conclusions
5. Propose theory
E.g. Pavlov observed dogs that salivated and then generated his classical conditioning theory
Deductive Method
Deduction is reasoning from the general to the particular
Starts with a theory then looks for evidence to support it
1. Observations
2. Propose theory
3. Testable hypothesis
4. Conduct a study to test the hypothesis
5. Draw conclusions
E.g. Darwin formulated his theory and then tested it through collection of evidence like fossils
Paradigm
A paradigm is a shared set of beliefs or assumptions about a aprticular subject matter
A paradigm shift is the changing in beliefs about a subject e.g. when astromers suggested that the Earth is not the centre of the universe
Probability and Significance
Probability is a numeircal meausre of likelihood or chance that a certain event will happen e.g. the change of rolling an odd number on a dice is 50%
Significance is a statistical term used to indicate whether the research findings are sufficiently strong enough to rejct the null hypothesis and accept the experimental hypothesis
In psychology the accepted level of signifance is usally p≤0.05
Type I and II Errors
A type I error is an error which occurs when a researcher rejects a null hypothesis which is true
More likely to occur if the significant level is too lenient e.g. 0.1 not 0.05
Saying it is signifcant when there is actually no difference
A type II error occurs when a researcher accepts a null hypothesis which was not true
More likely to occur if the significant level is too stringent e.g. 0.01 not 0.05
Saying it is not significant when there is actually a difference
Levels of Measurement
Nominal data is represented in the form of categories e.g. how many males and females there are in a group
Ordinal data is ordered in some way e.g. asking everyone to rate how much they like something from 1 to 10
Interval data is based on numerical scales that include units of equal size e.g. measuring temperature or timing with a stop watch
Statistical Testing Grid
NAME
TESTING FOR
DATA
DESIGN
Mann-Whitney
Difference
Ordinal
Unrelated
Wilcoxon
Difference
Ordinal
Related
Unrelated t-test
Difference
Interval
Unrelated
Related t-test
Difference
Interval
Related
Sign Test
Difference
Nominal
Related
Spearman’s Rho
Correlation
Ordinal
Pearson’s R
Correlation
Interval
Chi-squared
Association
Nominal
Unrelated
Mann-Whitney
Testing for significant difference
Ordinal data
Using unrelated design
Calculated value must be equal to or less than the critical value in the table
Wilcoxon
Testing for significant difference
Ordinal data
Using related design
Calculated value must be equal to or less than the critical value in the table
Unrelated T-test
Looking for a difference
Interval data
Unrelated design
Calculated value must be equal to or more than the critical value
Related T-test
Looking for a difference
Interval data
Related design
Calculated value must be equal to or more than the value from the table
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