Religious, Political and Scientific Belief Systems

A belief system is any integrated set of ideas which influences the way that people see the world. Belief systems can take several forms but the most important types are religious, political and scientific.

Religion can be difficult to define, but any definition is usually based on a belief in the exsistance of a supernatural entity or other forces. Religions may or may not claim the existance of a supreme God or several gods.

The belief in a single God, for example Christianity, Islam and Judaism.

The belief in several gods, for example Hinduism and religions of ancient Greeks and Romans.

A religion without the belief in God, for example Buddhism does not involve a belief in the existance of a God but it has a set of values which people are expected to live their lives by.

Where there is a supernatural belief but no concept of God, for example Heaven's Gate cult, which believed that humans were merely vehicles carrying the souls of interstellar travellers. Members of the sect committed suicide in order to join a spacecraft which they believed was travelling behind a comet.

These are concerned with the content of religion. Yinger (1961) defined religion as 'a system of beliefs and practices by means of which a group of people struggles with the ultimate problems of human life'. 

Functional definitions tend to be too inclusive (it is too easy to qualify as a religion), while substantive ones tend to be too exclusive (it is too difficult to qualify as a religion).

These define religion in terms of the functions it performs for society and for individuals. For example, Durkheim (1961) defined religion in terms of a distinction between two domains in the world, one of which is sacred and the other profane. Things in the sacred domain produce a sense of awe and respect, where as the profane does not. Durkheim even thought that nationalism was a type of religion - he called it a Civil Religion, because it had similar functions to more conventional religions.

The idea of civil religion has been particularly critised for stretching the definition to include beliefs that have no supernatural element to them. While there might be similarilities between nationalism and religion, beliefs such as nationalism do not provide ultimate meanings about the purpose of life, nor do they explain the origins of the universe as many religions claim to. 

Religious belief systems remain dominant in some parts of the world, although in Western societies alternative belief systems have become more influential since the 18th century.

Functional definitions tend to be too inclusive (it is too easy to qualify as a religion), while substantive ones tend to be too exclusive (it is too difficult to qualify as a religion).

These are based upon views about how society should be organised and do not have a supernatural element. Nevertheless, political beliefs can be so strongly held that they lead to violence, wars adn the persecution of social groups.

Examples of political belief systems include a belief in free-market capitalism (sometimes called neo-liberalism), Marxism, socialism, liberalism and so on.

This was influential in the Soviet Union from 1917 to 1990. Communists believed that the means of production, e.g. land and factories, shouldbe run by the state rather than owned by individuals, to create greated equality.

This was influential in Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945. Proponents believed that the interests of the state should be paramount, and that this required the leadership of an authoritarian dictator who pursued the interests of the nation.

This is influential in the contemporary USA. Neo-liberals believe that private enterprise is the best way to run society, and that competition drives efficiency and ensures consumers needs are met.

These have their basis in the belief that it is possible to understand the natural world and produce truthful knowledge about it. They can be used to justify certain types of behaviour and to criticise others, for example beaviour relating to health.

These have their basis in the belief that it is possible to understand the natural world and produce truthful knowledge about it. They can be used to justify certain types of behaviour and to criticise others, for example beaviour relating to health.

Bierstedt (1963) defines objectivity as meaning that 'the conclusions arrived at as the results of enquiry or investigation are independant of the race, colour, creed, occupation, nationality, religion, moral preference and political predisposition of the investigator'.

In contrast, value-laden beliefs are influenced by the moral preferences of an individual and are at least partly subjective - based on personal opinion, not unbiased truth.

Generally the followers of religions, political and scientific belief systems do not believe them to be value-laden but see them as objective. However, others may well see them as biased ideologies. 

An ideology can be defined as a belief system that supports the interests of a particular social group at the expense of others. Ideologies can be used to maintain the power of a dominant group in society. Religious, political and scientific belief systems have all been seen as ideological.

Whether a belief system is an ideology, or fundamentally true is often contested. Marxists and feminists tend to regard all religions as ideological. Most scientists see science as persuing truth independant of the values of individuals, but some sociologists argue that science too is value-laden.

• This material provides the starting point for answers to questions about different types of religion, but for many questions you will also need to use the sections on religious organisations.

• In 10 and 20 mark questions on religion it may sometimes be necessary to discuss the definiton of religion.

• You are unlikely to get a 20 mark question just about political beliefs, but you may be able to use this knowledge as part of the answer to a longer question.