Problem Solving

4 requisites for problem solving (DeLoache et al., 1998):

• Goals
• Objectives
• Strategy
• Evaluation

Physical problem solving:

• Tool use
• Tool innovation

Abstract problem solving:

• Reasoning

How non-human animals solve problems:

Thorndike (1911): Law of effect

• Animals gradually get to the solution to problems from trial and error (not insight)
• Positive outcome acted as reinforcement similar to an operant conditioning scenario
• No sophisticated mental process involved

Tests used such as a cat in a puzzle box with food on the outside. It had to pull the correct lever to get out - measured the seconds it took them to get out the box - gradual dcline of time shows trial and error effect rather than insight (would have shown a significant drop in time taken)

How non-human animals solve problems

Kohler (1925): Insight:

• Thorndike's experiments were too restrictive and prevented animals from revealing their capacity
• Sultan the chimpanxee came to a solution suddenly - gave up trying to jump from the floor to reach the banana and instead used the boxes to stack up and climb on
• Sultan was familiar with boxes - criticism - building on existing knowledge rather than insight

Epstein et al. (1984) trained pigeons to carry out two separate actions:

1. Moving a box towards a reward

2. Standing on a box to peck a banana

• When presented with a novel problem similiar to the Sultan experiment, pigeons moved the box beneath the banana, and pecked the banana whilst standing on the box
• The roles of both prior experience and insight

Problem solving = understanding causal relations?

• Causal reasoning requires a link to be drawn between two separate events
• Capuchin monkeys and chimpanzees failed the trap tube task (pushing a rod into a tube to push treat out but if they pushed the rod from the wrong side than the treat fell into a trap)
• Even after repeated attempts, only 1 in 4 had kind of been able to succeed

Do crows understand causal relations?

• Taylor et al. (2009) showed New Caledonian crows succeed in (a number of variations of) the trap tube task

Do crows understand folk physics?

• New Caledonian crows can pass (a number of variations of) the floating worm task - putting stones into water to raise the worm to the top rather than in the sand which would have no effect
• The crows also knew to use heavier vs lighter objects and solid objects rather than hollow ones. Wider vs thiner tubes, different water levels and U-bend tube weren't as successful

Tool making as a true test for insight

• Betty the crow fashioned a hook out of a piece of straight wire
• Crows presented with two wires (one bent into a hook and one straight) and a small bucket inside a tube with a worm in
• The male crow selected the hooked wire whereas the female crow selected the straight wire and bent it into a hook

Solving physical problems

• Some animals have knowledge of causation and folk physics - this may be how they solve problems (New Caledonian crows)
• Understanding causal relations is not necessary for problem solving (Chimpanzees and Capuchin monkeys)
• Prior experience with the relevant properties of the objects is important

Human infant & children's understanding of physical problems

• Human infants engage with object exploration from birth to 9 months
• From 12 months onwards, infants engage in object-oriented play
  • Infants learn about object affordances
  • Infants learn the possibilities to use objects as tools
• By age 3 to 4 years, children can already use a range of tools, e.g. spoon, toy hammer, crayon

Emergence of tool use in human infants

Lockman (2000)

• Tool use originates from infants' manipulation of the physical world
• Tool use is rooted in the perception-action routines
•  It is a gradual process, it is not a result of emergence of new representational skills
•  It is learnt through trial and error
•  Play enhances problem solving by creating a flexible cognitive mindset that objects can be used in various ways

Emergence of tool use in human infants

• Object exploration facilitates tool-use over and above mere observation of tool use
• Object-oriented play is as effective as problem-solving training
  • Establishing experience with an object before using it to solve problems boosts success rate

Potential tradeoff of having prior experience

• Prior experience with a tool may limit creative use of the tool for a different purpose
• Functional fixedness