Power notes

• Max Weber- argued that an individual or group has power when they are able to get what they want despite opposition from other people
• in Weber's view, we exercise power over someone when we influence them, even against their will
• coercion- the use of force. we obey an individual or group because we feel that we have no choice. includes the threat or use of physical violence or torture
• authority- when we willingly obey someone because we think it is the right thing to do. force is unnecessary because we agree to obey
• Karl Marx- see power as closely linked to social class relationships. power is held by members of the bourgeoisie. argue that the bourgeoisie use their power to exploit the proletariat
• traditional- based on custom and tradition. we accept the authority of an individual or group because it is customary for us to do so. e.g. the queen
• legal rational- we obey an individual or group because of the position they hold within an organisation e.g. the prime minister
• charismatic- we obey an individual because we believe that he or she has extraordinary personal qualities which inspire us e.g. Mahatma Gandhi
• Weber recognised that an individual authority may be based on a mix of two types of authority

• government by the people
• power is distributed widely and the governments power is based on consent and legal rational authority
• direct democracy- citizens of the country take part directly in the decision-making process
• indirect democracy- citizens elect representatives who make political decisions for them
• citizenship- being a member of a particular state, a political and legal status
• all UK citizens have full legal rights- to vote, to be treated equally, responsibilities to respect the law and pay tax
• can also be about active involvement in public life and participation in the political process
• active citizenships describes activities such as voting, joining a pressure group or being interested in current affairs
• citizenship education involves learning how to become an informed amd active citizen

• state- refers to the various institutions that organise and regulate society by making, implementing and enforcing laws
• parliament- legislative power
• the civil service- executive power. advises government ministers on policy and to implement government policy. apolitical.
• the judiciary- judicial power. consists of judges who operate within the court service. concerned with law enforcement
• government- the members of parliament who are ministers selected by the Prime Minister
• cabinet- made up of senior ministers who meet regularly to discuss government policy
• pluralist approach- a range of competing groups and interests exists in society. political power is shared between these groups. the state's role is to act as an umpire or neutral referee. regulates and manages the different interests and serves the needs of all citizens
• marxist approach- those in positions of pwer within the state tend to come from a narrow social and educational background. power is concentrated in the hands of the few. used to benefit the minority. state's role is to protect the interests of the bourgeoisie. state policies generally benefit its members

role of general elections:

• every five years or less
• people elect MP's to represent them in the House of Commons
• party with the most MP's forms the government and puts its policy programme into effect
• people aged over 18 who are a UK citizen and are not in prison have the right to vote
• first past the post
• advantages- each constituency elects its own MP and ensures that one political party usually gains sufficient seats to form the government
• disadvantages- many MPs will be elected even though more than half of their voting constituents did not vote for them
• works against smaller parties
• critics argue it is unfair and undemocratic
• smaller parties get more seats with PR

• citizens have the right to form, join and become active in the political party of their choice
• a political party is an organisation that wants to form a government
• have policies on a range of issues
• before a general election, each political party publishes its policy proposals in its election manifesto
• the party that wins the general election forms the government
• it can then claim a mandate for its policies
• e.g. it can claim that support for its policies derives from the electorate

• narrow definition- traditional. e.g. voting, standing for office, being involved with a political party
• broader definition- engagement in public life e.g. being involved in trade unions, tenants' associations, community organizations and volunteering
• all citizens have the right to participate in politics and public life by:
• voting
• following election campaigns in the media and discussing them
• standing for office
• joining and getting actively involved in a political party
• also entitles to participate in protest activities by signing petitions, contacting an MP or the media or joining a pressure group
• citizen participation can help to make government more democratic during the long gaps between elections
• active participation ensures that the government is made aware of the views of citizens, and informed citizens act as a check on and form of control over the government and elected representatives

• traditional forms of participation are declinging
• declines in
• voter turnout in UK general elections
• membership of political parties over the last decade
• strength of voter's indentification with a political party over the long term

the power commission

• investigated reasons for the decline in participation in formal democratic politics in Britain
• 2006- reported that voting in elections seems irrelevant to growing numbers of people
• they no longer want to get involved in formal politics or join political parties
• politicians and political institutions are untrustworthy, failing and disconnected from them
• their views and interests are not influential enough in political decision making
• report rejected the idea that people are politically apathetic
• political apathy is a myth
• people undertake voluntary work, sign petitions, join protest marches, support customer boycotts

• turnout refers to the proportion of eligible voters who actually vote in an election
• between 1945 and 2005, there were 17 general elections
• turnout between 1945 and 1997 was relatively stable and did not fall below 70% of the electorate
• in 2001, it fell to a low of 59.4%
• social factors such as age, gender, ethnicity and social class influence the patterns of voting
• people do not see much difference between the two main parties
• people feel that they already know what the election's outcome will be
• people in safe seats may have abstained because they were disillusioned with all politicians and politics
• could be public satisfaction with the current government
• voters are less motivated to get involved in politics
• there is little evidence that voters are less motivated to participate

social class- working class tend to vote labour, middle class tend to vote conservative

age- young people tend to vote labour, over 55 tend to vote conservative

gender- women are more likely than men to vote labour

ethnicity- ethnic minorities tend to vote labour as they are often in manual jobs

religion- many muslim voters may not support labour anymore due to their decision to invade Iraq

region- people in the north of england and scotland tend to support labour, people in the south of england tend to support conservative, people in rural and suburban areas tend to vote conservative, people in inner cities tend to vote Labour

women, ethnic minorities, those aged under 30, those aged over 65, and manual workers are under represented in the house of commons

those with a university education and particularly those with an oxbridge education, those from a private school, and professionals are over represented in the house of commons

reasons for low numbers of female MP's- fewer women than men want to become MP's, women tend not to contest winnable seats, lack of demand among political parties for female candidates, discrimination against women by the local panels that select candidates in the constituencies

definition- a pressure group consists of people who share a common concern or interest. They operate locally, nationally or globally and the groups use their power to try to get its views publicised, influence decisions, influence public policy

types-

protective- seek to protect or defend their member's common interest e.g. trade unions

promotional- seek to promote a particular cause or to campaign on a specific issue e.g. Greenpeace

insider- operate inside government networks and are consulted by government departments, civil servants and ministers when policy proposals are being prepared e.g. AA

outsider- not consulted automatically, aims or methods are not recognised

pressure groups try to influence government policy but they do not seek to win electoral power or form a government

political parties want to have their candidates elected as MP's, form a government and run the country

pressure groups usually focus on a single issue or a set of related issues

political parties have policies on a wide range of issues

insider- campaign vigorously to raise their profile and become insider groups in the first place, publicity stunts are usually legal

outsider- adopt a variety of campaigning methods in order to attrack media attention, influence public opinion, build up support and persuade the government to adopt a particular policy

petitions, lobbying, sponsoring a political party, undertake research, contact the media, be sponsored by a well-known personality, industrial action

protest marches, boycotts, publicity stunts, blockades, disruptions, destruction of property, violence against individuals

success: whether the gorups has insider or outsider status, resources, size of membership, the issue and how far the public backs the cause, the tactics used and how far the public and government approve of the tactics

a range of views and interests exists in society.

pressure groups are crucial to democracy because they help to ensure that these varied views and interests are represented in the decision-making process.

enable citizens to participate in the political process and ensure that power is spread widely among the different interest groups.

help politicians and governments to keep in touch with the opinions of the ordinary people. citizens can inform the government of their views between elections

keep the electorate informed about important issues and raise new issues

often contain people who are experts in their field

in a position to provide policy makers with an informed opinion

society is based on conflicting interests between different social groups

some groups are much more powerful than others and are able to dominate the political process and decision making

key groups are able to exert more influence than others during the policy making process because they have sufficient staff and financial resources at their disposal. they can dominate decision making

some groups power is based on their ownership of property or wealth. gives them status and allows them to access and influence the policy makers

governments are more willing to listen to some insider groups rather than others

the influence of a pressure groups may not be in proportion to the size of its membership

54% interested in politics

33% believed getting involved works

more men than women said they were fairly or very interested in politics

more people aged 55 and over than people aged between 18 and 24 said they were fairly or very interested in politics

more people with A levels and above were interested than people with no qualifications

more middle class people were interested than working class people

people seem more interested in local services e.g.tenants committee, school governors, local councillors etc.

formal- unpaid help given as part of organizations, groups or clubs to benefit other people or the environment e.g. running a Scout group

informal- unpaid help e.g. childcare that an individual gives to someone who is not a relative

higher proportions of people aged 16-24 participate in informal volunteering than those aged 65 and over

similar proportions engage in formal volunteering in those age groups

women are more likely than men to engage in both formal and informal volunteering

work commitments

do other things in spare time

looking after children/home

had not heard of opportunities to help

lack of time

lack of money

lack of access to transport

lack of information

personal circumstances

fear of crime

social location- individuals and social groups have different amounts of resources, these resources are linked to people's social location, the likelihood of participating in politics is linked to this

rational choice- people make a rational choice about whether or not to participate in politics, they will participate if the incentives or benefits of doing so outweigh the costs

socialisation- political behaviour and attitudes develop through the socialization process, people become inclined towards various forms of behaviour through interacting with families, communities and others. some peopke are socialised into patterns of active involvement in politics, others are not

psychology or personality- professional politicians and full-time workers for political parties tend to have extrovert personalities and lots of self confidence

a system in which the state takes responsibility for protecting the health and welfare of its citizens and for meeting their social needs

the state does this by providing services and benefits

in britain the welfare state was established as a safety net to protect the most vulnerable members of society and to guarantee them an adequate level of income, health care, education and housing

The NHS

National Insurance benefits

Non-contributory benefits

Local benefits

housing, education, social

labour party- important role to play in society

conservative party- has helped to solve some problems, has created others, dependency culture

• social problems involve social conditions, situations or behaviour that are viewed as undesirable and so require action to try to solve them
• e.g. poverty, discrimination, unemployment
• social policy- the actions taken by policy makers and governments to tackle social problems and promote people's wellbeing
• there is little agreement on the aims and goals of social policy or the ways in which governments should act to finance welfare services
• one approach sees the main goal of welfare services as reducing poverty and redistributing income from rich to poor
• in this view, state benefits should be targeted on people with the lowest incomes

• state provision of financial support through means-tested benefits
• a means test establishes whether a person is in need of financial help before they receive it
• whether or not a claimant qualifies for means-tested benefits, and how much they receive, depends on factors like their income and savings
• advantage- resources and help can be targeted at those most in need
• disadvantages- those in need may not claim, process is too complex and intrusive, may label and stigmatize claimants, may trap people in poverty, may discourage people from saving
• child benefit is available to anyone with responsibility for a child
• national minimum wage- some argue it has not had a significant impact on wage inequalities
• critics say benefit levels are inadequate to meet people's basic requirements and should be increased to ensure that people can afford basic necessities
• successive governments have failed to significantly reduce the high levels of poverty in Britain

high rates of employment boost government revenue through income tax and reduce spending on state benefits and make it easier to fund other social policies and to meet the likely costs of an aging population

the attention of policy makers has focused on the numbers of people who are economically inactive

causes- long term sickness, disabilities, unpaid caring responsibilities

welfare to work policies

• increase job opportunities for people who are claiming benefits
• improve claimant's skills and motivation
• give claimants a greater finanical incentive to take advantage of the opportunities available

discrimination- occurs when people are treated differently and less favourably

legislation- Equal Pay Act, Sex Discrimination Act, Race Relations Act, Civil Partnership Act, Disibility Discrimination Act

race relations act- outlawed direct discrimination, indirect discrimination and victimization. made it unlawful to discriminate against anyone on the grounds of race, colour, nationality or ethnic or national origin

people aged 50-60 face discrimination in the labour market from employers who believe that older workers cannot adapt to new technology

Employment Equality (age) Regulations- introduced regulations against age discrimination in employment and training

many older people's main source of income is from the state

some commentators argue that state pensions are inadequate and should be improved

we enter into power relationships when we try to control or influence the behaviour and decisions of other people

we also enter power relationships when other people try to control or influence our behviour

holding and exercising power is about being able to make your own interests count, achieve your aims and influence the behaviour of others

children, parents and guardians

students and teachers

children and their peers

employers and employees

members of the public and the police

expected to exercise authority over children and to discipline them when necessary

since the 1950s sociologists have identified a shift of power and attention towards children in working class families

parents became less strict and started having more democratic or equal relationships with their children

it is now recognised that children have rights within families

teachers exercise legal rational authority based on their position within the authority structure

teachers also have the power to enforce school rules

limited to particular school contexts

may also exercise authority based on their charisma

teachers have become more informal and democratic

exercise legal rational authority based on the position they hold within the police force

have powers to stop and search, arrest and detain members of the public

may also exercise coercive power or reasonable force as a last resort

based on written rules, their interaction with the public is governed by codes of practice

seeks to strike the right balance between police officers' power and the public's rights and freedom

interaction with police officers may sometimes provoke resistance among members of the public

one view argues that these are based on legitimate authority and operate through formal rules

workers rights are protected by law

others suggest that in reality, unequal power relationships operate in the workplace

the employment contract is based on an unequal balance of pwer between employer and employee

employers have the power to hire and fire workers

many employees are not involved in decision making at work

some employers do not fulfil their responsibilities