Paper2, Section 1

Robin Lakoff - hedges/tag questions/over-polite forms/hyper-correct grammar/less taboo/less dominant/apologise more/empty adjs/use more intersifiers

Deborah Tannen - information vs feeling/status vs support/advice vs understanding/independance vs intimacy/conflict vs compromise/orders vs proposals

Deborah Cameron - argues against Tannen. 'Verbal hygiene' e.g. how to speak properly, langauge imposes a social order on thr world

Janet Hyde - 'gender similarity hypothesis'

Jennifer Coates - Gossip for women and the different types of talk that Fishman invented

Zimmerman and West - dominance theory and interruptions made 96% by men

Fishman - dominance theory, hedges and tag questions investigation - women use more

Hoey - certain words create connotations with other words e.g marked terms. This means that each word already has a meaning

Labov - Martha's Vineyard and the diphthong pronunciation

Ives - code-switching in Bradford and use of slang in South London

Polari - East London 'anti-langauge' to distinguish gay men in the 1950/60s - flower linguistics

Lave and Wenger - communities of practice

Kerswill - Multi-Cultural London English/dialect levelling

Estuary English

Cockney Rhyming Slang

Eckert - overt prestige of 'jocks' and covert prestige of 'burn-outs' in America

Accent and Dialect: 

Howard Giles - Matched-Guise Experiments

Milroy - Belfast Study of social networks and dialect

Howard Giles - Accomodation theory

Milroy - Belfast study as the women who used the non-standard forms had jobs

Swales - discourse community, people working in the same place use lexis specific to that ocupation

Holmes - the use of humour in the workplace

Drew and Heritage - professional lexis, turn taking, assymetrical format, goal orientation

Acronyms/Jargon/Ocupation register/Codes/audience

Politeness strategies - face needs and phatic talk and why it's so important at the start of a conversation

Streström - features common in teen-talk - taboo/slang/overlaps/language mixing/name caling/verbal duellig/word shortenings/indistinct articulation

Eckert - social,biological and chronological age/use language to distinguish themsevles from older generations

Odato - 3 stages of like. faster rate of girls than boys and supports imitation theory

Using written features in speech - a way to not get into trouble (usually associated with taboo)

Peers and youth culture, technology, the need to be 'cool' and fit in, adult convergence and divergence

Zimmerman - music, new communication, street art 

Pescriptivists: Inkorn terms/Academies

Swift/Lowth/Johnson, before switching/Wilson/Lindsay Young/John Humphreys

Descriptivists:

Johnson/Elyot/Mulcaster/Jonson/John McWhorter

Aitchson, McKinnon

Kachru/Strevens/Schneider/Jenkins/Crystal/Graddol/Lim/Nerriere/Siedhofer

Windrush/Ann Arbour/Oakland Proposal - Labov for, McWhorter against/Kerswill and Multi-Ethic Youth Dialect through new identities by immigration and communities of practise.

Canadian - AE vocab, GBE spelling

Some African Englishes - schwa and butter

French - syllable not stress-timed

Hinglish - 'shampoo' and 'bungalow'

MCLE - vocab and slang e.g. 'mandem' and 'man'

Jafacian - 'in dem' rised in popularity due to Ali G

Jamaican creole - switch from simple past 'had' of standard Eng to simple past 'did'/pronouns again e.g. 'man'