Normative ethical theories - virtue ethics - Revision Cards in A Level and IB Religious Studies

Virtue ethics

Aristotle's virtue ethics is an agent-centred approach to morality, which places right character before right behaviour - it is only by becoming better people that we will do the right thing.

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Aristotle assumed that everything has a fixed function, an essence, and we flourish by adhering to that function.
Goodness consists in performing one's function well, for example, a knife's goodness lies in its capacity to cut effectively.
For living things, the soul determines function, for example, a plant fulfils its function through taking food in and growing.
The uniqueness of the human soul lies in its capacity for rational thought.
Reasoning well is how humans attain goodness and that entails exercising virtue for their entire lives.
Leading a virtuous life enables a person to reach the pinnacle of humanity, that is, to achieve eudaimonia (happiness).

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For Aristotle, virtue in a human is defined by the soul (the blueprint of the body).
The soul is divided into two major parts: the rational and irrational.
The irrational soul consists of moral virtues, and the rational soul consists of intellectual virtues.

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Intellectual virtues are qualities of the mind, such as prudence, wisdom and scientific knowledge, and we cultivate these through instruction, i.e. learning.
These are controlled by reason, and so contribute most to the virtuous life.

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Moral virtues are qualities of character, such as courage, temperance and modesty, and we cultivate these by habit and experience.
Moral virtues (or golden means) lay at the mid-point between two vices - that of excess and that of deficiency.
For example, if I do not have enough courage I am a coward, if I am excessively courageous, I am rash.
These virtues arise out of emotions and appetites and are directed by the rational soul, especially by practical wisdom.

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Aristotle argued that people are only acting virtuously if they know what they are doing. For example, if someone who jumped in a fast-flowing river to save a drowning child did not think or know that he was himself in danger of drowing, then he was not acting virtuously.
People are also acting virtuously only if their act is a reasoned choice, and not motivated by desire or in order to impress others.

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VE is holistic, the whole of the personality is considered: excellence of character; the development of theoretical reasoning and practical skills and wisdom;
It's human-centred - it values strength of moral character above following rules;
It allows for moral judgement, so it doesn't have the problem of deontological ethics where rules conflict;
It does not make the claim that there is a perfect solution for every moral problem, instead it simply equips people to deal with those problems;
It has a teleological focus of eudaimonia - complete well-being, so it is good for society;
You don't have to be morally equipped to deal with NML's difficult doctrine of double effect. Instead, you follow the example of virtuous people, and if you make mistakes, so do virtuous people;
The doctrine of the mean, means that VE is flexible with regard to situations and persons. For example, soilders in a war zone will need a different degree of courage from that required in combating a disease.

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VE ignores cultural relativism - different societies have different values, so whose virtues should be the the role model?;
Although VE works for individual morality, it is less useful in national and international politics because governments cannot make ethical decisions based on individual character;
It is difficult to apply VE to moral dilemmas such as embryo research and cloning. Virtue is practised over a lifetime, whereas many moral issues require immediate answers;
VE is anthropocentric (human-centred), and so ignores the interests of animals and the environment as a whole;
Virtues can conflict with one another - sometimes we have to choose to be kind or be honest, but we can't be both. VE doesn't tell us which virtue should prevail;
Similar to SE, VE relies far too much on the individual, and ignores the authority of the Bible and church teachings.

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