Memory- Duration
- Created by: poppingcandy
- Created on: 11-12-14 10:32
Duration
DURATION-
- LTM- unlimited
- STM- measured in seconds
Case studies-
- Bahrik et al
- Peterson and Peterson
Evaluation-
- Marsh et al
- Nairne et al
Validity
- Only one type of memory (semantic memory) tested
- Not actually testing duration- displacement instead
Bahrick et al and Peterson and Peterson
Bahrik et al
- Tested LTM
- Asked people of various ages to put names to faces in high school yearbook from their class
- 48 years on, 70% can match names to faces
- 30% can freely recall all names
Peterson and Peterson
- Tested STM
- Experimenter said 3 letters to the participant
- Participant had to count down from 500
- After a certain amount of time, the experimenter would stop them and ask them to recall the 3 letters
Evaluation of Peterson and Peterson
- Distraction activity- (counting down) deplaced the letters so therefore is not testing STM
Capacity
Capacity
- LTM unlimited
- STM less than 7 chunks
Case studies
- Miller 7+/-2
- Simon- size of chunk matters
Evaluation
- Jacobs- age differences in age span
Applications
- Post codes based on chunks
Miller and Simon
Capacity
Miller-
- 7+/-2
- People could cope with 7 dots flashed onto a screen, but not many more
- Depending on the size of the chunk depends on whether it's 7+/-2
Simon-
- Size of chunk affects ho much you can remember
- Shorter memory span for larger chunks- e.g. 8 word phrases
Encoding
- LTM semantic
- STM acoustic or visual
- Baddeley
Evaluation-
- Brandimote et al
- Frost
Baddeley
- Tested effects of STM and LTM
- Gave participants lists of acoustically similar or dissimilar words
- Found acoustically similar words= STM
- Semantically similar words= LTM
Brandimote et al and Frost
Brandimote-
- Found that participants used visual encoding in STM if given a visual task and prevented from doing any verbal rehersal before performing visual recall task
Frost-
- Showed that LTM recall was relatedto visual as well as samantic catagories
The Multi-Store Memory (MSM)
Atkinson and Shriffin
- Sensory memory- evidence from Sperling
- STM- limited capacity and duration, mainly acoustic encoding
- LTM- unlimited capacity and duration, mainly semantic encoding
Processes
- Attention and maintenance recall
Strengths-
- Applicatiuons- dealing with hippocampal damage
- Strong evidence to support claims for duration, capacity and encoding
- Evidence from 3 stories: Serial position effect (Glanzer and Cunitz), case studies of brain damage (HM)
Application
- Guiding people with hippocampial damage
Limitations
- Oversimplified
- Processing more important than maintenance rehersal- Craik and Lockhart compared shallow, phonemic and semantic processes
Validity
- Use of words and participants usually psychology students
Atkinson and Shriffin and Glanzer and Cunitz
Atkinson and Shriffin
- Said that information moves from STM to LTM by rehersal- the more info is rehersed, the better remembered
Glanzer and Cunitz
- Gave participants 20 words
- The first few and last few were best remembered
- THEORY- First few (a primary effect) best remembered as they were repeated, therefore transferred to LTM
- Last few (a recency effect) best remembered- fresh in STM (approx. 20-30 seconds long)
Case study- HM
- Suffered from severe epilepsy, so had his hippocampus removed to try and cause it
- He ended up with brain damage as a result
- His personality and intellect remained intact, but he couldn't form new LT memories
- He could remember things from before th surgery
Suggesats that hippocampus functions as a 'gateway' through which new memories pass through before entering the permenant store in the brain.
The Working Memory Model (WMM)
Baddeley and Hitch
- Explains why you can do two different tasks at the same time but not two similar tasks
- Central executive- resource allocation, small capacity.
- Phonological loop- phonological store and articulatory process, maintenance and rehersal
- Visuo-spatial sketchpad- Visual cache and inner scribe
- Episodic buffer- general store and intergrates information from other stores and alson from LTM
Strengths
- Explains memory deficits of KF
- Mainterance rehersal is only an optional process
- Emphasises process rather than structure
Applications
- WMM useful in diagnosis of mental illness
Limitations
- Central executive doesn't explain anything
- Central executive is probably several components
- Problems with evidence from brain damaged induviduals e.g. no before and after comparison
Eyewitness Testimony- Further Research
- Loftus and Palmer-experiment 1, misleading information (hit vs contacted)- inaccurate recall
- Experiment 2- (Broken glass)- misleading information changes information storage
Evaluation
- Supporting evidence from Loftus et al, stop/yield sign
- Challanged by Bekerian and Bowers, misleading information affects retrieval
- Real-life robbery (Yuille and Cutshall) accurate recall despite misleading information
Induvidual differences
- Males and Females same (Wells and Olsen)
- Older people have remembering surce of information but recall for event same as younger people (Schater et al)
Applications
- Mistaken EWT largestsingle factor in wrongful conviction
Validity
- Lab experiments may not be taken seriously
- Participant isn't emotionally involved
- Foster et al- better identification with real-life set up
Further reaserch evidence- Loftus &Palmer, Yuille
Loftus and Palmer
Experiment 1-
- Wanted to see if eyewitness recall if accurate and if it was affected by leading questions
- Asked 4 fifferent groups how fast the car was going , but when asking the question, they changed the verb: smashed, hit, bumped and contacted
- The harsher verbs had a higher estimated speed
Experiment 2-
- Wanted to see if leading questions leaf to a biased answer
- Two groups witnessed a film of a car crash. 6 weeks later, they had to recall what happened. One group was asked if they saw the smashed glass (eventhought there was non) and the other was asked if there was any smashed glass
- The group asked if they saw the smashed glass had a 40% higher say 'yes'
Yuille and Cutshall
- Interviewed 13 people that witnessed an armed robbery in Canada
- Interviews happened 4 months after an included misleading questions
- Despite questions, witnesses had accurate recall that matched their initial detailed reports
- Fuggests that post-event information might not affect memory in real life EWT
EWT- Factors that influence accuracy
Anxiety-
- Deffenbacher et al. meta analysis showed anxiety reduced accurate recall of EWT
- Christianson and Hubinette- anxiety improves accuracy in real-life bak robberies
Evaluation-
- Meta-analysis supports weapon-focus effect
- Loftus et al. tracked eye movement to support weapon-focus effect
Age of witness-
- Children make errors (Parker and Carranza)
- Older less accurate when delay was one week or more (Memon et al)
Evaluation-
- Own-age bias (Anastasi and Rhodes)
- Due to differenial experience
Induvidual differences
- Alcohol impairs attention (Clifasefi et al)
Anxiety-Deffenbacher, Christianson and Hubinette,
Deffenbacher-
- Meta-analysisof 18 studies looking at effects of anxiety on eyewitness recall. Ws clear that high levels of stress negatively impacted on accuracy of Eyewitness memory
Christianson and Hubinette-
- Questioned 58 real witnesses of a bank robbery,
- Witnesses that had been threatened had more accurate recall than those who wern't
Loftus-
- Tracked eyewitnesses' eye movement and found that they foused on the weapon rather than the person's face
Anxiety-Deffenbacher, Christianson and Hubinette,
Deffenbacher-
- Meta-analysisof 18 studies looking at effects of anxiety on eyewitness recall. Ws clear that high levels of stress negatively impacted on accuracy of Eyewitness memory
Christianson and Hubinette-
- Questioned 58 real witnesses of a bank robbery,
- Witnesses that had been threatened had more accurate recall than those who wern't
Loftus-
- Tracked eyewitnesses' eye movement and found that they foused on the weapon rather than the person's face
Age of witness- Parker and Carranza, Yarmey
Parker and Carranza-
- Compared primary school children and college students in their ability to identify people after a mock crime
- Children chose more people, wheeras college students chose less, but were more accurate
Yarmey-
- Stopped 651 adults in public places and asked them to recall physical characteristics about a woman who earler spoken to them for 15 seconds 2 minutes earlier
- 18-44 yeard of age were confident in recall, but 45-65 were significantly less accurate
Cognitive interview
What is it?
- Report everything
- Recreate origional context
- Change order
- Change perspective
(Fisher and Geiselman)
Evaluation-
- Milne and Bull- report everything and mental rienstatement gave best recall
- Hard to evaluate because many versions of Cl
- Time-consuming
- Enhanced Cl creates greater demand for interviews
- Kohnken et al- meta analysis , 34% increase in correct recall
Strategies for memory improvement
Mnemonic techniques-
- Verbal- acronym, acrostic, rhymes, chunking
- Visual imagery- Loci method and spider diagrams
Research evidence
- Verbal mnemonics- Popular with students: effective in children with learning disabilities (Gliddent et al)
- Visual imagery mnemonics- Loci method useful for older adults (O'Hara et al)
Explainin how they work-
- Organisation- creating memory hooks and organising material
- Elaborative rehersal- amount and nature of rehersal
- Dual coding hypothesis- Paivio
Application-
- Mnemonics used to overcome STM problems in Down Syndrome children (Broadly and MacDonald)
Limitations-
- Most research in lab conditions rather than real-life conditions
SFMI- Broadly and MacDonald, Paivio
Broadly and MacDonald-
- Studied 63 children with Down Syndrome
- Phase 1- Children were tested on a battery of tests, includiong STM skills
- Phase 2- Children divided in to experimental groups, who recieved memory improvement techniques and a control group who did not
- Phase 3- assesment was repeated and showed training programme improved memory skills among experimental group of children
Paivio-
- Proposed that words and images arre processed seperately
- Concrete words, that can be made in to images, are double encoded in memory
- Coded once in verbal symbolsand once in image-based symbols
- Double coding increased likelihood that they will be rememberd
- Paivio called this dual coding hypothesis
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