MB1 - Social Thinking Expand Cards

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  • Created by: Psych951
  • Created on: 11-05-18 15:13

Compliance

  • Surface change
  • Compliance techniques
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Compliance Expanded

  • Surface change in behaviour which isn’t associated with underlying cognitive changes.
  • Compliance techniques = Strategies that manipulate someone into agreeing
    • Norm of reciprocity (expectation of favours returned)
    • Door-in-the-face (make a large request, expecting rejection, then ask smaller request)
    • Foot-in-the-door (Comply with small request then ask more)
    • Lowballing (Commit to action then increase ‘cost’).
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Obedience

  • What is obedience?
  • Milgram
  • Mediating factors
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Obedience Expanded

  • Obedience means to comply or submit to a request under somebody else's authority - Can be good or bad
  • Milgram experiment – 65% reached max intensity – Unexpected – Ethical issues
  • Factors influence obedience:
    • Proximity to victim and authority
    • Legitimacy of authority
    • Diffusion of responsibility
    • Not sex or personal characteristics
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Norms

  • Social norms
  • Social role
  • Role conflict
  • Norm formation
    • Evident in studies
  • Presence of others
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Norms Expanded

  • Social norms = Shared expectations about others’ behaviour and attitudes.
  • Social role = Set of norms that characterises how people in different social positions should behave.
  • Role conflict = Norms for different roles clash.
  • Norm formation: The development of standards for a group, usually unspoken 
    • Emergence and influence of group norms demonstrated in experiments that ask for individual estimates, then group, then individual and final estimates converge to average of group.
  • Presence of others affects behaviour:
    • Social facilitation = Heightens arousal leading to tendency to act on impulse/dominant response 
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Conformity

  • Adjustment of behvaiour
  • Normative social influence
  • Informational social influence
  • Referent informational influence
  • Shared social identity and influence
    • Subjective validity
  • Asch
  • Mediating factors
  • Minroty influence
    • Strengthening minortiy influence
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Conformity Expanded

  • Adjustment of behaviours and attitudes to group standard.
  • Normative social influence = Conform to gain rewards of acceptance from group
  • Informational social influence = Conform due to a belief that others have more accurate knowledge/know what to do.
  • Referent informational influence = Influenced primarily by members of group that one identifies with
  • Shared social identity is important for influence – Expectation of agreement due to connections and similarities
    • Subjective validity = Group agreement gives confidence in own thoughts.
  • Asch line experiments – 37% of the time conformity occurred – Group pressure from majority affected behaviour.
  • Factors affecting conformity: Group size; Presence of dissenter; In-groups vs. out-groups; Culture.
  • Minority influence = Less artificial influence on behaviour
    • Increasing influence: Committed but flexible; Open mind but be independent of majority; Make itself visible; Alternative coherent view; Show movement from majority to minority is necessary; Highly consistent.
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Behaviour in Groups

  • Importance of groups
  • Social loafing
  • Collective effort model
  • Social compensation
  • Group polarisation
  • Group think
    • Causes
    • Symptoms 
  • Deindividuation
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Behaviour in Groups Expanded

  • Groups form important part of identity and well-being so conform to avoid rejection
  • Social loafing = Expend less individual effort when working in a group than when alone – Likely to occur if individual performance isn’t monitored, goal isn’t valuable to individual or expects high effort from others in group.
  • Collective effort model: People put as much effort as they expect to reach a goal
  • Social compensation = Working harder in a group than when alone to make up for others low competence.
  • Group polarisation = Group of like-minded people discuss issues then average opinion of each member becomes more extreme
  • Groupthink = Tendency of group members to suspend critical thinking because they seek agreement
    • More likely when pressure to reach decision; isolated from outside input; directive leader; high cohesiveness. – Want to maintain positive group front.
    • Symptoms = Direct pressure to those expressing doubt; Mind guards (people preventing negative info); Members self-censoring and having doubt; illusion of unanimity.
  • Deindividuation: Loss of individuality leading to disinhibited behaviour for/with group – Think Zimbardo prison – More likely when anonymous to outsiders. 
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Inter-Group Dynamics

  • Different treatment of groups
    • Reasons
    • Out-group homogeneity bias
    • In-group favouritism
  • Reasons for stereotypes being resistant to change
    • Realistic Conflict Theory
    • Social Identity Theory
  • Stereotypes
  • Prejudice
    • Explicit vs. implicit
  • Reducing prejudice
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Inter-Group Dynamics Expanded

  • Cultural and historical norms legitimise different treatment of certain groups and socialisation processes pass beliefs to children – Tendency to categorise
    • Out-group homogeneity bias = Think out-group members are more similar than members of in-groups
    • In-group favouritism = Percieve situations to be favourable to in-group
  • Stereotypes are resistant to change 
    • Realistic conflict theory = competition for resources fosters stereotypes
    • Social identity theory = Stereotypes enhance personal self-esteem. 
  • Stereotypes = Mental representations of groups
  • Prejudice = Negative attitude of someone based on their groups - Act on = discrimination
    • Explicit prejudice = Control over them, publicly expressed; Implicit prejudice = Arise automatically and hidden (measure with association tests)
    • Prejudice confirms itself – Stereotype threat.
  • Reducing prejudice:
    • Teach interventions to minimise stereotype threat e.g. stereotype defying examples
    • Equal status contact = Bring different groups together in close contact, equal status, achieve common goals and recreate norms.
    • Shooter bias in police can be reduced by exposing them to videos over and over which have an equal chance of the armed man being black or white. 
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Interpersonal Dynamics

  • Evolution and pro-social behaviour
  • Socio-cultural factors and pro-social behvaiour
  • Baston pro-social behaviour
    • Egoistic goals
    • Empathy-altruism hypothesis
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Interpersonal Dynamics Expanded

  • Evolution and pro-social behaviour = Kin selection and reciprocal altruism.
  • Socio-cultural factors and pro-social behaviour = Norm of reciprocity – Norm of social responsibility (contribute to welfare of society)
    • Internalise norms as own through socialisation e.g. parents and culture influence.
  • Batson pro-social behaviour: Altruism = Helping others for purpose of enhancing their welfare
    • Egoistic goals = Help others to improve own welfare
    • Empathy-altruism hypothesis = Altruism is product of empathy
    • Can true altruism ever be achieved?
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Bystander Intervention

  • Presence of others
  • Specific conditions 
  • 5 step bystander intervention process
  • Mediating factors in who recieves help
  • Increasing pro-social behaviour
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Bystander Intervention Expanded

  • Kitty Genovese demonstrates how the presence of other people doing nothing inhibits others from giving aid
    • Due to diffusion of responsibility or social comparison
  • Situational and personal factors affect intervention e.g. good mood, not being in a hurry
  • 5 step bystander intervention process = Notice; Emergency?; Responsibility; Self-efficacy; Decision to help (cost-benefit analysis).
  • Who will receive help?
    • Similarity
    • Gender (male more help women, women equal)
    • Perceived fairness and responsibility of situation e.g. drunk man less likely to get help.
  • Increasing pro-social behaviour
    • Expose people to prosocial models
    • Encouraging empathy and connectedness
    • Understand what prevents intervention. 
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Attraction

  • Initial Attraction
  • Growing relationships
    • Social exchange theroy 
    • Mating preferences
  • Love
    • Types
    • Sternberg's triangular theory
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Attraction Expanded

  • Initial attraction = Proximity; similarity; physical attractiveness. - Matching effect = Partners levels of attractiveness are similar
  • Growing relationships: Self-disclosure and sharing of meaningful experiences
    • Social exchange theory = Relationships governed by rewards and costs
    • Mating preferences may reflect evolution.
  • Love:
    • Passionate love = Intense emotion, arousal and yearning partner
    • Companionate love = Deep caring and affection
    • Sternberg’s triangular theory = Combo of three components of love (passion, intimacy and commitment) lead to different types of love - Consumate is the ultimate
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Aggression

  • Biological factors
  • Enviornmental factors
  • Psychological factors
    • Catharsis
  • Media
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Aggression Expanded

  • Biological factors: Genes and evolution – No one area for aggression in brain but amygdala and frontal lobes important
  • Environmental factors: Frustration (interruption of progress to goal) – Learning and observation
  • Psychological factors: Self-justification - Attribution of intentionality – Empathy
    • Catharsis = Freud says aggressive impulses build and then released vicariously/socially acceptable – Overcontrolled hostility lets anger build until it breaks in aggressive ways = dangerous. – Catharsis may not always make sense e.g. may not work if goal isn’t satisfied by the release of anger.
  • Media influences aggression
    • Catharsis says media allows vicarious release
    • Other research says media influences are negative and normalises aggression and shows it as rewarding. 
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Social Psychology

  • Focus
  • 3 Key aspects of social thinking
  • Cognition in human perception
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Social Psychology Expanded

  • Study of how we react to, view and influence other individuals
    • Allport: How the thoughts, feelings and behaviour of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of others
  • Key aspects of social thinking (way we think about our social world) are attributions, impressions and attitudes
  • Cognition involved with object perception differs from human perception because social world is ever-changing
    • We make impressions on humans, but they also make impressions on us
    • Way we acquire info about social world is dependent on our motivational components
    • People's behaviours change in different situations
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Attribution

  • What are attributions?
  • Personal Vs. Situational
    • Determinants of type of atrribtution made 
  • Attribtuional biases 
    • Fundamental attribtuion error
    • Self-serving bias
  • Cultural differences 
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Attribution Expanded

  • Judgements about the causes of our own and other’s behaviours and outcomes
  • Personal (internal) = Own characteristics cause behaviour Vs. Situational (external) = aspects of environment cause behaviour
    • Three types of info determine type of attribution made: Consistency, distinctiveness and consensus. – When all are high we make situational attribution and when consistency is high but other two are low we make personal.
    • Attributions tell us why causal relationships occur
    • Applying model to real world is hard as not easy to operationalise factors and all info may not always be available, or may ignore the info
  • Attributional biases - Not all attribtuions are logical
    • Fundamental attribution error = underestimate impact of situation and over-estimate personal factors when explaining other’s behaviour – Time to think or reflect decreases FAE and usually occurs because judgements is made on single occasion.
    • Self-serving bias = Personal attributions for success and situational for failure to protect self-esteem.
  • Cultural differences: Western think more analytically and non-western more holistically leading to different attributional processes. – FAE and self-serving reflect Western individualism e.g. non-western may protect self-esteem in other ways such as the support of their family.
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Forming Impressions

  • Rapid impressions
  • Primacy effect
  • Mental set
  • Self-fulfilling prophecy 
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Forming Impressions Expanded

  • Rapid impression formation is adaptive – Impressions involve labelling and also evaluating the assumptions with that label
  • Primacy effect: First impressions are more important – May shape how later info is received – Recency also occurs but hold on more strongly to first info – Also may influence the exposure to later info if we don’t like them etc.
  • Mental set = Readiness to perceive the world in particular way
    • Links to schemas – Description of someone may influence how you perceive them/interpret their behaviour by priming schema – Schemas can be helpful cognitive shortcuts – Negative use of schema is stereotypes
  • Self-fulfilling prophecy: Expectations affect behaviour towards a person, which can cause the person to behave in a way that confirms expectations.
    • Making wrong impressions can be harmful for person but no impressions can be harmful to self.
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Attitudes

  • What are attitudes?
  • Why don't attitudes always predict behaviour?
    • Theory of planned behaviour
  • Explaining attitude changes
    • Cognitive Dissonance 
    • Self-Perception theory 
    • Evidence for both
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Attitudes Expanded

  • Positive or negative evaluative reaction toward a stimulus which guides behaviour
  • Attitudes don’t always predict behaviour because:
    • Situational contradictions to attitudes
    • Theory of planned behaviour: intention to behave stronger when positive attitude of behaviour, subjective norms support attitudes and we feel in control of behaviour
    • General attitudes predict general behaviour and specific predict specific.
    • Strongly held conscious attitudes have bigger influence
  • Explaining Attitude Change
    • Cognitive dissonance: Two or more cognitions contradict - strive for consistency in cognitions – Reduce by changing cognition or adding new ones – Counter-attitudinal behaviour produces dissonance if we perceive that our actions are chosen and threaten self-concept. – Dissonance won’t always lead to attitude change because we may not think about the meaning of what we’ve done or we may find external justifications
    • Self-perception theory says we make inferences about our own attitudes by observing how we behave = behaviour can change perception of attitudes – Against dissonance
    • Dissonance explains attitude change when counter-attitudinal behaviour threatens self-worth or is highly inconsistent whereas self-perception theory explains situations when attitudes that were previously held are weak anyway
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Persuasion

  • Communicator credibility
  • The message
  • The audience 
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Persuasion Expanded

  • Communicator credibility: How believable the communicator seems to be – Expertise, trustworthiness, attractiveness etc. – Influential when audience knows little about subject or cares little
  • The message: Two-sided refutational approach is best especially if audience know about subject – Playing on emotions can be effective if presented in a non-threatening way
  • Audience: Central vs. peripheral route of cognition. 
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Self-Concept

  • Representation of self
    • Reflected appraisals principle 
  • Forms of identity
    • Self-discrepancy theory
    • Regulatory focus theory
  • Self-esteem
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Self-Concept Expanded

  • Representation of self is made up of many schemas and some are more important than others – Important as often judge others off own behaviour
    • Describe self = schematic characteristics, true but not used to describe self = aschematic
    • Reflected appraisals principle = other’s views incorporated into self-concept
  • Forms of identity:
    • Self-discrepancy theory = identity formed of ideal, actual and ought self
    • Regulatory focus theory = Ideal self has promotional goals and ought has prevention goals – Goal differences affect behaviour
    • Personal and group identity
  • Self-esteem arises from making favourable or unfavourable evaluations about self – Sense of worth – Positive bias – Self-esteem acts as internal monitor of social acceptance
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