Learning 2

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Classical conditioning

  • Classical conditioning is a more complex form of learning featuring the relationship between stimuli. It is the most simple form of associative learning, and occurs when an organism learns to associate two stimuli so that one comes to elicit a response that was originally elicited only by the other stimuli.
  • Extinction can occur in both operantly conditioned and classically conditioned behaviour. When operant behaviour that has been previously reinforced no longer produces reinforcing consequences the behaviour stops occuring; this is extinction
  • Spontaneous recovery refers to the re-emergence of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a delay. Because of spontaneous recovery, Pavlov suggested that associations aren't unlearned. Instead there's the formation of inhibitory connections during the extinction phase.
  • Classical conditioning can help us understand the acquisition and overcoming of fears and phobias e.g in the Little Albert experiment
  • Edward Tolman suggested it could be expectancy theory rather than stimulus substitution theory. Tolman explained that the conditioned stimulus elicited an expectation of the unconditioned stimulus.
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Operant conditioning

  • Operant conditioning refers to learning relationships between behaviour and external stimuli. It is sometimes known as instrumental conditioning: an organism's behaviour is instrumental to bringing about certain incomes
  • Skinner: behaviour is influenced by the consequences that follow it. The 'Skinner box' enabled the study of spontaneous and continuous behavioural learning in rats and other animals
  • The role of the antecedent: the antecedent may be a general situation or a specific stimulus. Being in a general situation may elicit a certain behaviour. Quickly learn that particular behaviours produce certain consequences. In short, antecendent stimuli signal to us which behaviour to use and therefore guide much of our everyday behaviour.
  • The role of the reinforcer: reinforcement can be positive or negative. It increases the frequency of desirable behaviour. Punishment can also be positive or negative. It decreases the frequency of undesirable behaviour.
  • Operant conditioning: applications - Shaping. A reward can be used to reinforce approximations towards a final response.
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Operant conditioning: limitations

  • Does learning only involve stimulus-response assocations, with behaviours being shaped based upon the consequences/reinforcements
  • Do we also learn via response-outcome associations, by developing an awareness of the expected consequences of behaviour.
  • Studies show that animals do know about the causal relationship between actions and their consequences which means that cognition does play a role in behaviour.
  • Tinkelpaugh (1928): monkeys selected one of two food locations to obtain a reward and learned where their preferred reward was stored. Occasionally experimenters gave monkeys lettuce when it should have been bananas. The response of the monkeys suggested they expected a more attractive reward for making the correct response.
  • Apes showed insight when solving problems in order to reach a banana. It suggested that learning cannot be explained as forming a connection between stimulus and response. Instead, its a formation of expectation - use of mental imagery.
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Learning and the brain

  • An early idea was that learning resulted in the formation of new cells in the brain. Santiago Ramon y Cajal challenged this view. He proposed that instead, learning might occur through the strengthening of existing connections in the brain. Donald Hebb formulated Cajal's ideas into a hypothetical biological mechanism dubbed 'Hebbian learning'.
  • Hebbian learning: "Cells that fire together wire together". When activation of neuron A causes activation of neuron B the connection strength of A and B is increased.
  • Long-term potentiation (LTP): was first observed at a molecular level by Lomo (1966). Demonstrated in neurons by Eric Kandel. It refers to the long-lasting increase in efficiency of snynaptic transmission. Neuron 1 releases neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. Neuron 2 has receptors to accept the neurotransmitters and generate an electric impulse. When neuron 1 and 2 fire simultaneously this increases the number of receptors at neuron 2, which increases the likelihood that neuron 1 will stimulate a response from neuron 2.
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