Language Theories

Norwich Study:

• Looked at the pronunciation of the suffix ending 'ing'
• Non standard forms occured more in men than women
• Men tend to use covert prestige.

Reading Study

• Looked at the language of teenagers in reading
• Boys have more non - standard forms than women
• Boys belonged to a denser network than women 
• Their language converged towards the vernacular to show social solidarity

Showed that mens language showed aurthority and women's lacked in some way:

• Women's language lacks in comparison to men
  
• Women use more WH imperatives
• Women hedge more
• Speak less fequently 
• Use less taboo language
• Use empty adjectives
• Lack a sense of humour
• Use more intensifiers
• Apologise more

• Women were more co-operative in same sex conversations
• Tend to use more positive politeness

Rugby Team

• Men use insults as a way of expressing solidarity
• They are less likely to save face
  

Difference model

• Status vs. Support

For men conversation is a way of building status whereas for women it is about seeking and providing support

• Advice vs. Understanding
  

Women seek comfort and sympathy whereas men seek a solution

• Information vs. Feeling
  

For women conversations are about building relationshiops whereas for men its about communicating information

• Orders vs. Proposals

Men use direct imperatives wheras women use superpolite forms (Let's)

• Conflict vs. Compromise
  

Women tend to avoid conflict in comparison to men.

• Independence vs. Intimacy

Women tend to seek intamacy whereas men seek independence

Men prefer topics where they can take turns on being the expert. whereas women are more personal.

Men ask questions to seek information.

Women use three times more tags than men to try and keep the conversation going