Language and Gender theorists

Language embodies structures that sustain male power. Claims it is difficult to challenge the patriachal power system in place , as the way we think of the world reinforces the male power.

'the crux of our difficulties lies in being able to identify and transform the rules which govern our behaviour and which bring patriachal order into existence.' Language must be used in a way that is acceptable and meaningful.

Conversation between sexes sometimes fails because of how men respond, or don't respond. The work that women do to keep the conversation going is 'conversational shitwork.'

Fishman is critical of Robin Lakoff's theories. Women's use of tag questions are not  showing insecurity and hesitancy, they are attributes of interactions; they ask questions because of the power it gives them, not their personal weaknesses. 

Men speak, on average, twice as long as women.

Men will often reject a topic of conversation introduced by women while women will accept topics introduced by men.

Men discuss 'male' topics.

Women are more likely to initiate a conversation then men, but less likely to make the conversation succeed.

In mixed sex conversations men are more likely to interrupt then women.

Research done on Santa Barbara campus of University of California in 1975. Subjects were all white, middle class and under 35. Produced 31 segments of conversation. in 11 conversations between the sexes, men used 46 interruptions, women only used 2. Since men interrupt more often, they are dominating or attempting to do so.

Esther greif adds:

Both parents interrupt daughters more than sons.

Fathers interrupt more than mothers.

Beattie recorded 10 hrs of tutorial discussion and 557 interruptions. Found women and men interrupted with a similar frequency ( men 34.1 , women 33.8) Men interrupt more, the margin is so slight it is not statistically significant.

Six contrasts:

Status vs Support

Independednce vs Intimacy

Advice vs Understanding

Information vs Feelings

Orders vs Proposals

Conflict vs Compromise

Male characteristic is always the first one.

Men grow up in a world in which conversation is competitive. For women conversation is often a way to gain confirmation and support for their ideas.

Men see the world as a place where people try to gain status and keep it.

Women see the world as  'a network of connections seeking support and consensus.'

Women often think in terms of closeness and support, struggle to preserve intimacy.

Men, concerned with status, tend to focus more on independence.

Lead women and men to starkly different views of the same situation.

To many men a complaint is a challenge to find a solution.

Men's concerns were seen as more important than those of women.

Today the situation may be reversed so that the giving of information and brievity of speech are considered of less value than sharing of emotions and elaboration.

Women often suggest that people do things in indirect ways.

Men use ,and prefer to hear, a direct imperative.

Men will resist unattractive decisions vocally.

Women appear to agree but complain subsequently.

Women:

Speak less frequently.

Show they are listening with minimal responses.

Speak more quietly than men and tend to use the higher pitch range of their voices.

Use hyper correct grammar and pronunciation.

Use a greater range of intonation and 'speak in italics'

Use question intonation in declarative statements

Overuse qualifiers

Hedge

Use super polite forms

Women:

Apologise more.

Use tag questions.

Have a special lexicon.

Use empty adjectives.

Use more intensifiers.

Use more adjectives to describe approximate amounts.

Use more eupehmisms than men.

Use diminutives more than men

Use more replicated forms

Women:

Use more reduplicated forms

Use direct quotation

Use 'wh-' imperatives

Use modal contractions

Use indirect commands and requests

Avoid slang and avoid coarse language or expletives.

Avoid making threats, using aggressive language and insults

Lack a sense of humour.

The fact that 'male words' are placed first in many phrases, thus suggesting male dominance.

A notable difference or inequality between words that should be equivalent.

Occurs when the female term in a male/female pair acquires negative connotations over time.

When male terms are used in a generic or non-gendered context. Suggests male as default.

When a term applied to women is marked out as gender specific

Males titles do not reveal marital stauts, men do not generally change their name when married.

Typically more apply to women. Feminisation is an insult to men. Insults often based on animals.

How we use language to make sense of the world.

Focuses on:

• Who (Pronouns, nouns, noun phrases)
• Is doing what (verbs)
• Where, when and how ( adverbs and prepositions)

Gets a clear sense of who is in control and who is not.

• Uses standard english.
• Seen as more educated.
• Uses 'correct' english

Women tend to use Overt prestige more frequently- Peter Trudgill.

Women trying to act and speak in a socially desirable manner.

Women assert themsleves more.

• Not adhering to Standard English all the time.
• Group loyalty and solidarity is shown.
• Used to show solidarity in the working class.

Men don't feel threatened by women and so can use less standard forms. They are not bound by the same roles as women.

More derogative terms for females than males.

20 terms for males.

220 for women.

There is as much variation within each gender as there is between the sexes.

Challenges any attempts at binary classification of gender and argues that we need to start thinking about gender in more complex ways.

The key issue is that, whatever style of speech, women are judged by different standards:

• Women are held to higher standards.
  • Verbal Hygiene
    • Being cleansed of a way of speech

Men and women both face normative expectations about the approrpriate mode of speech for their gender.

Women's verbal conduct is important in many cultures.

Women have been instructed in the proper ways of talking  just as they have been instructed in the proper ways of dressing, in the use of cosmetics and in other 'feminine' behaviours.

Language is never neutral.

It reflects the cultural values of the society in wich we live.