Key Approaches in Psychology
- Created by: khodnett
- Created on: 14-03-16 16:38
Biological Approach
assumptions
- human behaviour is strongly influenced by our genetic makeup and our genetic inheritance
- the central nervous system is essential for thought and behaviour. understanding brain structure and function explains behaviour and thought
- the chemical processes in the brain are responsible for psychological functioning therefore an imbalance of these may cause disorders
- the brain and mind are the same
- humans evolved through darwinian evolution causing many similarities to animals
methods
- highly scientific, advanced technologies such as scanning techniques
- use of chemicals and drugs to treat imbalances in the brain
- twin studies for researching genetic inheritance
- detailed case studies on brain damage patients
- animal investigations
Biological Approach Evaluation
strengths
- highly developed use of the scientific method
- recognises the role of the brain
- developed drug treatments for abnormal behaviours
- recognises the impact of evolution and genetic influence on behaviour
limitations
- reductionist
- ignores the environments influence
- cannot explain consciousness and conscious thought
- over simplifies
Behaviourist Approach
assumptions
- all behaviour is learnt from experience in our environment
- all behaviour is learnt through reinforcement or punishment
- reinforcement strengthens link between stimulus and response
- we are all born a blank slate
- internal mental processes cannot be studied scientifically and objectively
- valid to generalise from animals
Behaviourism- Classical Conditioning
classical conditioning
- unconditioned stimulus -> unconditioned response
- unconditioned stimulus + neutral stimulus -> unconditioned response
- conditioned stimulus -> conditioned response
- long time gaps prevented learning
- conditioned stimulus presented too often without unconditioned stimulus extinguishes behaviour
- conditioned stimulus can be altered slightly and elict same response = stimulus generalisation
- if the change is too great the response is not elicted = stimulus discrimination
- the conditioned response can randomly return after being extinguished when the conditioned stimulus is presented= spontaneous recovery
Classical Conditioning- Watson & Rayner 1920
little albert
- baby albert had no initial fear of rats, but naturally startled by loud noises
- when the white rat and a loud noise where presented at the same time he would show fear
- he then cried when just the rat was presented so he had learnt to fear rats, then later generalised this to all white furred animals/objects
- this was conducted under lab conditions
- this provided evidence that classical conditioning can result in strong phobias
ethical issues- cant be repeated as it caused great distress to the child
Behaviourism- Operant Conditioning & Skinner's Box
operant condtioning
- all behaviour learnt from the consequences
- behaviour becomes more or less likely
- rewards/reinforcement increases chances of repeating the behaviour
- punishers decrease the chances of repeating behaviour
skinner box
- rat learnt to press leaver for food
- positive reinforcement: positive/pleasant consequence increases likelihood of behaviour
- negative reinforcement:removal of negative consequence increasiing likelihood of behaviour
- punishment: behaviour is extinguished
Behaviourist Approach Evaluation
strengths
- scientific
- animal experimentation avoids ethical issues
- environment is sole determinant of behaviour
limitations
- denies free will, deterministic
- rejects biological
- assumes it is easy to generalise from animal experiments
- ignores thoughts and emotions
- assumes all learning is from consequences
Social Learning Theory
assumptions
- all behaviour is learnt from experience
- mental processes are important in how people learn
- people tend to imitate behaviour seen rewarded and not the behaviour punished
- vicarious reinforcement is when the observer learns a models behaviour has been reinforced or rewarded, increasing likelihood of imitation
- reinforcement does not always need to be direct
- most research is on people
Social Learning Theory- Mediating Cognitions & Mod
bandura's mediating cognitive factors
- input->mediating cognitions-> output
- these occur between stimulus and response
modelling
- observational learning occurs as a result of one person watching another, and observing the consequences
- person being observed is the model and the observer replicating the behaviour is modelling
- not all observing leads to imitation
characteristics increasing chances
- models we identify similarities with
- likability and attractiveness, high status and famous
- low self esteem of observer
Social Learning Theory-Bandura's Aggression Study
aim
- to conduct a study with young children to demonstrate observational or imitative learning
method
- children split into 2 groups ,1st group individually placed into room with an adult behaving aggressively towarss a bobo doll, children in other group individually placed in a room with a subdued adult playing with bobo doll,then all children where individually placed into room with bobo doll and any aggressive behaviours shown where recorded
result
- children observed aggressive adult behaved more aggressively than those who observed non aggressive model. boys where generally more aggressive than girls
conclusion
- mere exposure to aggressive model results in observational learning and aggressive behaviour
Social Learning Theory- Mediating Cognitive Factor
attention
- oberver paying attention to model
retention
- remembering behaviour and the consequences
reproduction
- ability of observer to perform behaviour
motivation
- consequences inccured by model
Social Learning Theory Evaluation
strengths
- scientific method
- experimentation to study learning in people
- applications to understanding media violence and treating mental disorders
- less mechanistic view of human behaviour than behaviourism as takes cognitive processes into account
limitations
- too much focus on aggression while ignoring biology and genetics
- lab experiments highly artificial and difficult to generalise to everyday lives so lack ecological validity
- ignores personality differences like introversion and extroversion
Cognitive Approach
assumptions
- only studying mental processes can we understand behaviour
- mental processes can be studied scientifically and objectively
- human mind actively processes information from the senses
- computor is similar to the mind
- mental processes mediate between stimulus and response
3 types of enquiry
- cognitive neuropsychology- studying cognitive processes in brain damage patients. Broca discovered an area for speech production which when damaged caused difficulty speaking but not understanding speech
- cognitive science- theories and theoretical development
- experimental cognitive psychology- investigating all mental processes in normal healthy people in controlled experimental and lab conditions
Cognitive- Internal Mental Processes
ebbinghaus
- measured loss of information in memory by learning nonsense words and testing for retention over a few weeks
- found forgetting is greatest soon after learning and levels off after 2 days
watson
- experiment showing how people reason and how this is not always logical
- pps shown 4 cards, each with letter on one side and number on other
- told rule if theres an A on one side theres a 3 on the other then asked to turn over cards necessary to prove rule true or false
- most turned over A but few turned 2 ( options: A B 3 2) which needed to be turned to reveal an A proving the rule false
- most pps did not use logical method meaning pure logical thinking may be difficult for people
models- computor analogy of the mind
input of information-> processing-> storing and retrieving-> output
Cognitive Approach Evaluation
strengths
- scientific procedures to develop and test theories with experimental technique
- dominant approach in psychology
- model use aids understanding
- experiments can be used to understand processes that arent directly observable
limitations
- ignores biology and gene influences
- individual differences
- mechanistic view
- ignores emotion
- questionable value of purely scientific approach
Psychodynamic Approach
assumptions
- large part of our mental life operates at an unconscious level
- slips of the tongue and accidents have unconscious explanations
- behaviour thought and conscious mental processes are determined by unconscious mental processes
- early childhood experiences especially those from birth until 3 years old are vitally important in the development of adult personality and mental functioning
- childhood development takes place through psychosexual stages
- personality has 3 components- ID, EGO, and SUPEREGO
- ego employs defense mechanisms to protect itself from harm and unpleasant unconscious thoughts
- pschoanalysis can uncover unconscious thoughts through dream analysis
- typical reseach method is case studies of abnormal people used to make generalisations about our mental life
Psychodynamic- The Unconscious
the unconscious mind
- conscious thoughts are only a small part of our mental activity
- majority takes place at unconscious level and is unaccessible
- preconscious lies between the conscious and unconscious allowing thoughts to slip through to the conscious
- unconscious is made of instincts drives and desires unaware to us but have a strong influence, containing memories from early childhood that are traumatic retained through repression
- reservoir for disturbing memories from childhood allows normal cognitive functioning
- reservior for biological instincts and drives that are disturbing
Pschodynamic- Psychosexual Stages
oral 0-3 yrs- mouth focus
- oral aggressive fixation= wit and verbally critical
- oral passive fixation= nail biting and pen chewing
anal 3-5 yrs- anus focus
- withholding or expelling faeces to exert control
- fixation= anal personality
phallic 5-8 yrs- genital focus
- oedipus and electra complexes
- fixation= homosexuality and role model seeking
latent 8-12yrs- repressing
genital puberty yrs- sexual desires
Psychodynamic- Personality Structure
ID
- primative, instinctual, inherited
- pleasure principle
- unconscious level
EGO
- satisfied demands of ID while balancing SUPEREGO
- reality principle
SUPEREGO
- conscience and ideal self
- normally represents values and morals of parents
ID is entirely unconscious whereas EGO and SUPEREGO operate at conscious and preconscious levels
Psychodynamic- Defence Mechanisms
emplyed by EGO and used to prevent painful/upsetting/disturbing unconscious thoughts and conflicts fro becoming conscious
reaction formation- behaving oppositely to unconscious impulses and feelings
displacement- transfer of impulses / feelings onto neutral / innocent target
projection- putting own unacceptable impulses onto someone else
rationalisation- removing emotional content of idea / event by logical analysis
denial- refusal to acknowledge involvement
sublimation- redirecting threatening impulses to something socially acceptable
Psychodynamic Approach Evaluation
strengths
- identifies importance of childhood for later life
- recognises complexity of human thought and behaviour
- psychoanalitic therapy treats many types of mental disorders
- values individual, detailed case studies
limitations
- not scientific and the theories are difficult to investigate, not falsifiable
- if mental life operates at an unconscious level this is hard to investigate scientifically
- wrongly generalises case studies
- too much emphasis on sexual instincts in childhood
- male orientated regarding females as inferior due to a weaker EGO
- pessimistic and retrospective and deterministic
Humanistic Approach
assumptions
- idiographic, emphasising uniqueness
- people are essentially good and grow psychologically if given positive regard
- people strive to realise their full potential and self actualisation
- motivated by hierarchy of needs
- therapies should be client centred and warm, empathetic and genuine
- problems arise from differences in percieved self and ideal self
- scientific method is inappropriate and the focus should be on subjective experiences
- concerning things have meaning and value for people
- self and self concept are fundamental conscious experience is all that counts
free will
people are active agents able to change and decide their own developement
Humanistic- Concepts of Self & Conditions of worth
Carl Rogers (1980)- concept of self
- develops and emerges during childhood
- become aware of identity, personality
- includes all aspects of personal experience
- ideal self- what the person aspires to be with the values and morals guiding behaviour and thought
- incongruence between self concepts causes issues
- therapy can lessen differences
Carl Rogers (1980)- Condtions of worth
- we all need unconditional positive regard- to be loved valued and accepted without conditions
- conditions of worth- when the positive regard of a significant other is conditional, when the individual feels in some respects prized and in others not
- conditional positive regard- loved only when behaviour is approved
- client centred therapy is based on unconditional positive regard
Humanistic- Self Actualisation
Maslows heirarchy of self actualisation
- physiological needs- food, water, oxygen, sleep
- safety needs- security, protection, stability, freedom from fear
- belonging and love needs-friendship, intimate relationships, love of people
- self esteem needs- self respect, perception of competence, status, recognition of others
- self actualisation- realising full potential
- each need must be satisfied to move on the next , key characteristics of self actualised people is accurate perceptions, acceptance of others
Humanistic Approach Evaluation
strengths
- optimistic, recognising importance of personal experience and future looking
- client centred therapy is effective in treatment of mild disorders
- made psychologists consider the focus of psychology, recognising the importance of conscious experience, thoughts and feelings
- fundamental principle that people are responsible for their own behaviour and are not controlled by environmental forces or unconscious conflicts
limitations
- subjective, ignoring mental processes and the unconscious
- rejects scientific method of understanding and explaining human behaviour and thought so theories concepts and claims cant be investigated properly
- Rogers concepts and ideas have been criticised for being culture bound. western culture= individuals which is what self actualisation focuses on whereas eastern culture= groups
- focus entirely on individuals ignoring personality characteristics common to all
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