India

• Start of 20th century- British Raj at its height.
• King George V (1910-1936)  travelled to Delhi to hold a coronation Durbar to symbolise this strength and majesty of British power. 
• Britain viewed India as the 'Jewel in the Crown' of British colonies as it was hugely beneficial to the economy but also held an element of mystery and fantasy. 
• British thought India was unassailable. 

Elizabeth I granted the 'Governor and company of Merchants of London trading into the East Indies' a Royal Charter on 31 December 1600- The British East India Company. 

Trade- territory and building of an Empire. 

Raj- British rule in India. 

Durbar- A public audience at which a ruler appeared before his subjects. 

'Indian Councils Act of 1909' 

Indians elected to legislature on the basis of the 1861 Indian Councils Act increased numerically. 

The executive remained under strong British control and the governments consultative mode remained unchanged. 

The reforms established Indian dominance in the provincial, but not central, legislative bodies. 

Elections were affirmed for all levels of society. 

Separate electorates:

Where seats were reserved for Muslims, only Muslims polled. 

A territorial reorganisation of the Bengal Presidency implemented by the authorities of the British Raj in 1905. 

The partition separated the largely Muslim eastern areas from the largely Hindu western areas on 16 October 1905, after announced on 20 July 1905 by Lord Curzon, Viceroy of India. 

The Hindus of West Bengal, who dominated Bengal's business and rural life, complained that the divison would make them a minority in the province that would incorporate Bihar and Orissa. Hindus saw this as a 'divide and rule' policy and were outraged, despite Curzon stressing that it would produce administrative efficiency. 

The partition animated the Muslims to form their own national organisation on communal lines.

The partition triggered radical nationalism. Bengali Hindus were upset with their minority status and began an angry agitation, with bombings, shootings and assasinations by younger members. Bengal was interpreted as the goddess which had been victimised by the British. 

Muslim League:

Indian National Congress:

Hinduism:

• Key beliefs- One true god, Brahman, truth is eternal, strive to achieve Dharma, immortal souls.
• Rankings- The Brahims (priests)--> The Kshatriyas (soldiers)--> The Vaishyas (shopkeepers, traders, farmers)--> The Shudras (servants)--> The Untouchables. 
• Festivals- Makar Sankranti, Vasant Panchami, Kavadi.
• Largest religion in India- 996 million. 

Islam:

• Second largest religion in India.
• Six beliefs- angels, books, life after death, pre-destination, Allah is one, prophets. 
• Five pillars- declaration of faith, obligatory prayer,  giving, fasting during Ramadan, pilgrimage to Mecca.
• Festivals- Eid al-Fitr an Eid al-Adha.

Before WWI: Britain ruled 60% of India, other 40% ruled by native princes who followed British policies. 

Indian Civil Service:

India declared its loyalty and support for Britain. 

Support from: Congress, Muslim League, Gandhi, Tilak. 

27 of the largest princely states offered their personal armies and provisioned a hospital ship. 

Why?

Military contribution:

• Crucial source.
• The First Expeditionary Force (16,000 British and 28,500 Indian troops) embarked on 24 August 1914. Arrived at Ypres (19 Oct- 22 Nov) - heavy losses. 
• Average battalion- 764, 47th Sikhs down to 385. 
• Provided half the allied force at Nelive Chapelle (10-13 Mar).
• Dec 1915- moved to Middle Eastern arena due to low morale- better suited to climate.
• Level of contribution far greater than any other country. 

Economic contribution:

• Indian revenues contributed over £146 million to the war effort. 
• War loans, 1917- £35.5 mil, 1918- £38 mil.
• Revenue in India raised by: 1916- 16%, 1918-19- 10%, rise in military expenditure. 
• India also supplied sandbags for trenches and animals. 

• Congress and Muslim League working together.
• December 1915 both parties held their meetings in Bombay and agreed on pursuing the objective of self-governance.
• 1916 joint meeting in Lucknow. 
• They agreed...
  • There shall be self-governance in India.
  • The Indian council must be abolished.
  • The salaries for the Secretary of State should be paid for by the British.
  • Muslims should be given 1/3 representation in central government.

Home Rule Leagues:

Created by Bal Tilak, operated in Western India, founded in Poona with around 32,000 members. All India Home Rule Leagues- Annie Besant in Madras. 

Believed defence and foreign policy should be left to the British. Home rule was about domestic affairs. 

22nd August 1917- House of Commons.

Strongly against the way Britain administrated. 

Edwin Montague, Secretary of State for India, committed the British to granting some form of self-governance to India. Montague also promised to visit India. This suggested that the government was finally interested in India and that Montague would see problems from himself and ascertain the views from all sections of political opinion from India. 

Lack of timescale and target end date. 

Indian reactions:

• Nationalists criticised it... It lacked legitimate expectations and included no time span. 
• It was openly criticised in Congress sessions in Dec 1917. 
• They continued to plead for the establishment of self-governance. 
• Moderates however supported it- it was something at least. 

An Act of Parliament passed to expand participation of Indians in the government of India, embodied some of Montague's proposals and reforms. 

• 1. Relaxed the central control over the provinces by demarcating and separating the central and provincial subjects- authorised to make laws.
• 2. Divided provincial subjects into two- transferred and reserved. Transferred administrated by governor and ministers, reserved administered by governor without legislative council. This established the Dyarchy in India (government by two independent authorities).
• 3. Introduced bicameralism and direct elections. Upper House and Lower House. 
• 4. Required that 3/6 of the executive council were Indian. 
• 5. Provided separate electorates for Sikhs, Anglo-Indians etc.
• 6. Granted franchise to a limited group on the basis of property, tax or education.
• 7. Created a new office of the High Commissioner for India.
• 8. Provided for the establishment of a public service commission.
• 9. Separated provincial budgets from the central budgets.
• 10. Provided for the appointment of a statutory commission to inquire into and report on its working after 10 years. 

During the war India were placed under the Defence of India Act, a temporary measure for the divison of war and six months after. It was used to stop percieved anti-war and revolutionary activities. The Viceroy had power to issue regulations in order to secure public safety and that India was defended. 

The Rowlatt Acts replaced the Defence of India Act in 1919... 

• The Acts allowed certain political cases to be tried without juries.
• Permitted internment of suspects without trial.
• Objective: replace regressive provisions of DoI Act but permanently.
• Hugely resented by Indian public- Gandhi protested. Rare anonimity amongst Indian leaders.
• Britain feared economic and political turbulence from the war would create a dangerous situation within the Raj if populance rose. 

Montague: Reluctant to sanction the Acts, believed they were offensive. He acknowledged that rebellion needs to stop but not as harsh as this. 

Viceroy passed the Acts March 1919. 

• Hindu + Muslim solidarity.
• Pal + Kitchlew arrested- triggered rioting and storming of banks. 
• Marcia Sherwood, white European woman, brutally beaten. 
• Britain had lost control of Amritsar.

The Massacre: 19 April 1919

Governor of Punjab, Michael O'Dwyer, treated Amritsar as the first stage in a general insurrection aimed at overthrowing the Raj and sent in troops. Brigadier-General Rex Dyer led a force of 1,000 soliders. 

Dyer issued the instructions that all Indians traversing the street where the female missionary had been attacked were to crawl along it on their hands and knees. All meetings and gatherings were banned in the city- martial law was put into place.

Dyer and a posse of infantry appeared at the narrow entrance to the bagh where a meeting was being held. They fired 1,650 rounds of live ammunition into the crowd, killing 400 and wounding 1,500 more. 

1920-22: What was involved...

• Boycott elections and law courts.
• Hand back titles/decorations given by the British.
• Remove kids from government schools.
• Withold taxes.
• Refuse invites to Raj events.
• Leave all government posts.
• Refuse to buy imported goods.

Gandhi was nervous about another Amritsar-like event. He focused the campaign on areas of government unlikely to bring conflict with the police. They attacked vital Raj areas. 

Successes:

• University students boycotted exams. 
• Less votes in 1920 elections. 
• Taxes not paid on mass, 200 lawyers stopped working. 

Those unwilling to participate included: Millions of Indians did not follow the campaign. They did not want to give up jobs, some liked the Raj, others were not bothered or did not get the concept.

When it goes wrong...

• Hurtals set up for the Prince of Wales' visit to Bombay- turned into a 4 day loot and riot, leaving 53 dead. 
• Muslim Moplahs of Malaba declared a jihad, resulting in the killing of British, Hindue and Muslim landlords. 
• Chauri-Chaura February 1922- mob of Congress supporters burn down a police station and killed 22 Indian policemen. It was anti- Gandhi's message of non-violence, causing him to call off the movement and go into fast. 

Became a period of regrouping and consolidation. 

Gandhi, their leader, was in prison after the failed non-cooperation campaign. 

Developed the structure of the organisation to increase membership and appeal to wider groups of Indians. 

Ready for big satyagraha of the 1930s. 

Gandhi's 'Back to Basis' policy following his release gained much support from the Indian population. 

• Believed the concept of satyagraha wasn't wrong but that the Indian people weren't ready for the self-discipline necessary to make it work. 
• Congress committed to satyagraha. Members now acquired more understanding of peasants.
• Jawaharlal Nehru- 1920 Awadh.

1920s: Congress reorganises and increases its membership. 1922: Gandhi in prison. 1923: Congress allows members to stand for election in Raj councils. 1924: Gandhi's release. 

Gandhi:

• Born October 1869- January 1948. 
• Worked in South Africa- civil rights activist during Apartheid.
• Returned to India in 1915 and joined the Indian National Congress.
• Took leadership of Congress in 1920.
• Back to basics- Indians creating their own garments, living a simpler life.. e.g. Gandhi wearing a loin cloth. 

The ending of non-cooperation and Gandhi's imprisonment gave everyone concerned a breathing space. They had to stand back and reflect on the way forward. 

Gandhi released January 1924. During this time...

• Congress became more involved in peasant communitie and gained a greater understanding of peasant needs.
• Congress became more ready to understand and exploit local grievances and link them to Swaraj. 
• Leaders- C.R Das and Motilal Nehru.
• Both favoured taking advantage of 1919 Act.
• Raj returned to policy of attempting to balance the need to keep control and make concessions to India. 
• Considerable support given to local assemblies. 

The Indian Statutory Commission- group appointed in 1927 November to report on the Indian Constitution State, established under Government of India Act 1919. 

Members- John Simon, Clement Attlee, 4 Conservatives, 2 Labourites. 

February to March 1928, October to April 1929. 

Highly criticised because Indians were excluded. 

Boycotted by Congress and other parties. Gandhi restarted his civil disobedience movement. Jinnah also found it unacceptable. 

Workers Welfare League of India demonstrated. 

The Nehru Report of 10 August 1928 was a memorandum to appeal for a new dominion status and a federal set up of government for the constitution of India. It also proposed for the Joint Electorates with reservation of seats for minorities in the legislatures. 

It was prepared by a committe of the All Parties Conference chaired by Motilal Nehru with his son Jawaharlal Nehru acting as secretary. There were nine other members in the committee. 

Desired the same terms as the already self-governing white countries in the Empire, suggested princely states and British India join in federation. No further devolution of power to the provinces- permanent Hindu majority within new government. 

Muslim League reaction:

• With few exceptions, League leaders rejected the report- Jinnah's points...
• Main objections were separate electorates, Lucknow pact provided these and Residuary powers, Muslims would always be a minority at the centre. 

December 1928- amendment on Nehru Report. 

Plus more- 14 points overall. 

Born 25th December 1876 in Karachi, modern day Pakistan. He studied at Bombay University then Lincoln's Inn in London. Joined the Muslim League in 1913, becoming president in 1916. Resigned from Congress in 1920 after non-cooperation. First Governor-General of Pakistan 1947, died 1948.

Was not an orthodox Muslim:

He disapproed of Gandhi's mix of religion and politics- he preferred to focus on politics while fighting for a religious case. He did not develop a unique belief system to inspire. Led Muslim League because of his effectiveness as a lawyer and leader. 

He is seen as a committed Congress Nationalist- a moderate who disapproved of mass campaigns of non-cooperation. Distrustful of masses. Began to lead Urdu in 1937 and wear traditional clothes for formal occasions. Highly desired partition of India- Muslim state. 

Many Indian Muslims regarded the Sultan of Turkey as their caliph. 

Turkey treated poorly in WWI settlement, reduced sizes and forces taken off Sultan (Treaty of Sevres). The Khilafat Movement was set up to support the caliph. Gandhi supported the movement. 

The Collapse 1923:

• Turkey rejected the caliphate and became a secular state. 
• The religious mass appeal aspects of the movement alienated Western- orientated politicians who resigned from Congress.
• Many Muslims became uncomfortable with Gandhi's leadership. 

In the early 1920s, two movements came to the fore to provide purpose and direction to Muslims. 

• Tanzeem --> focused on organisation of Muslims.
• Tabligh --> promoting Islamic faith.

They wanted to 'rejuvenate' Islam in India, stopping the amount of Muslim to Hindu conversions. 

It led to Muslim communities regaining a sense of purpose. 

The aim was that every town should have an Anjuman Tabligh-ul-Islam (a gathering for the promotion of Islam) to ensure preaching, duties and education. 

In 1927 the Muslim League made a bold offer to Congress:

Jinnah after 1929:

Organisations:

• The Hindu organisation Arya Samj was proactive in the Muslim community. Members openly criticised Islam and sought converts to Hinduism. 
• Argued for cow protection (sacred Hindu animal)- Cow Protection Society.
• Attempted to have Hindi replace Urdu as the language of administration.
• Muslim Tabligh + Tanzeem movements were equally proactive. 
• 1906- Mahasabha formed to make Hindu community powerful and independent. 

Worship + festivals:

• Muslims prayed in silence whilst Hindus used gongs, bells and cymbals to create music when praying. 
• Festivals also caused friction. Hindu Holi festival was noisy and troubling to Muslims. Muslim festivals- cows slaughtered, sacred Hindu animal. 
• Local communities were sharply divided by different belief systems held by Hindus and Muslims. 

Sind(h) + Bombay:

• Muslim majority- Bombay presidency, separated by a desert and the sea.
• Sind had its own commissioner. 
• Muslim League took up the cause for separation, 14 points, dominant Hindu Bombay.
• Dissent high in region in 20th century- manifested in petitions for atonomous Sind.
• Hindus anti-separation- would create Muslim majority and Sind would not last economically.
• Separated on 1 April 1936- considered first step towards Pakistan. 
• Simon Commission considered it not the right time in 1928-29.

The Raj:

• Common thread of protecting the rights of minorities by making provisions for separate electorates- proposals of the Raj.
• While ensuring Muslims had a voice in local and national affairs, the Raj ensured that separateness was further emphasised and enshrined in their political 'solutions'.
• Montague Declaration 1917, Government of India Act 1919. 

Why?

The manufacture of salt in India was a government monopoly since 1882. Though salt could be obtained from the sea, it was a crime for any Indian to possess salt without having purchased it through the government- government collect tax. 

Gandhi proposed that every Indian should refuse to pay tax and purchase illicit salt. Salt was an important proponent in Hindu cooking for vegetarian meals, used in religious ceremonies, used for healing and food preservation. All religions/wealth participated in the march. 

Gandhi and his followers prepared a route through villages so Gandhi could promote sanitation, abstention from alcohol etc. March 12- Gandhi + 78 others set off and resolved not to return until India was free. On April 5 they arrived in Dandi, where Gandhi picked up salt and the boycott/collection of salt began. 

International press followed the march, thus no arrests were made along as that would only fuel Gandhi. 

December 31 1929- Congress raised the tricolour flag of India on the banks of the Ravi at Lahore. They publicly issued the Declaration of Sovereignty and self rule on 26 January 1930.

Satyagraha- non-violent, Indian sovereignty and self-rule. 

However... violence broke out after the salt march, particularly in Calcutta, Karachi and Gujurat. Protesting commenced across India- such as in Bombay 15,000 raided salt pans and were beaten and arrested, with over 90,000 Indians arrested overall in the camapign. Gandhi was unmoved to the violence this time but was consequently arrested on May 5 1930. 

Long term consequences of civil disobedience campaign:

• Did not produce immediate progress or create major concessions by Britain, or Muslim support.
• Satyagraha ended in 1934- Congress + Nehru moved away from Gandhi.
• World opinion + India and Britain beginning to recognise legitimacy of self-rule in India.
• Step towards independence. 

March 5 1931- Gandhi and Viceroy Irwin.

Marked an end to civil disobedience that was initiated with the Salt March in 1930. 

Thousands were in jail and the campaign had recieved worldwide publicity- Irwin wanted to end it. 

Gandhi was releasd from custody in January 1931.

Gandhi pledged to stop the satyagraha campaign and Irwin agreed to release those in prison and allow Indians to make salt for domestic use. 

Gandhi then travelled for the Second Round Table conference afterwards. 

An agreement between Gandhi and Babasaheb Ambedkar on behalf of the depressed classes and upper caste Hindus on the reservation of electoral seats for the depressed classes in British India legislature in 1930. Signed by Madan Mohan Malaviya on behalf of the upper caste.

24 September 1932- Yerwada Central Jail in Poona. 

It was a means to end Gandhi's hunger strike. Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald gave separate electorates- finally agreed 147 seats.

Terms:

• November 1930 in the House of Lords.
• Chaired by Ramsay MacDonald- PM and Labour party leader. 
• All three British political parties represented by 16 delegates. 
• 58 delegates represented most of Indian political opinion- excluding Congres who were not present. 
• Representatives were selected by the Viceroy. 

Decided that...

• India would be run as a type of dominion- similar to Canada, New Zealand etc.
• Would take the form of a federation that would include the princely states and 11 British provinces. 
• There would be Indian participation at all levels. 

December 1931.

• Delegates wanted to build upon the agreements made at the First Conference- this did not happen. 
• Gandhi-Irwin pact. 
• Gandhi was released from prison and allowed to go to London and represented Congress all by himself. 
• Iqbal, the Aga Khan and Jinnah represented the Muslim League. 
• Ambedkar represeneted the Untouchables. 
• Gandhi thought that he could represent the entirety of India. 

Differences to first conference:

• Congress representation- Gandhi as sole representative. 
• National government- Labour had fallen 2 weeks prior, MacDonald now headed a government dominated by the Conservative party.
• Financial crisis- Britain went off the Gold Standard- distraction.

The Act included...          (did not contain a bill of rights)

The Act was expected to...

Indian reaction:

• No significant group accepted the federal portion of the Act. 
• Jinnah said it is 'thoroughly rotten, fundamentally bad and totally unacceptable' - increased Hindu majority. Nehru called it 'charter of slavery'. 'machine with strong breaks but no engine'
• Not liked/accepted by Indian people- limiteed franchise, property qualification meant only 25% of population could vote. 
• Congress wanted swaraj not a compromise- strong central gov not strong provincial gov. 
• Muslim League said it did not give enough power to Muslims. 

Implications of the Act:

The proposal for setting up the Federation of India did not materialise because the Act proposed it could come into existence only if as many princely states were entitled to 1/2 of state seats in the upper house. 

Some parts came into force- Federal bank 1935, Federal court 1937 and provincial autonomy 1937. Simon Commission promised dominion status 1929 but GoI Act did not confer it. 

In 1939, the British Indian Army numbered 205,000 men and by 1945 was the largest all-volunteer force in history, rising to over 2.5 million men. 

• Middle East and African theatre: British gov sent Indian troops to fight in west Asia and northern Africa. India also produced essential goods such as food and uniforms. The 4th, 5th and 10th Divisions fought in north Africa vs Rommel's Afrika Korps. The 4th and 5th also fought in east Africa against the Italians. 
• South-East Asia: Key Empire presence in Burma- Royal Indian Air Force's first assault vs the Japanese at Burma. 
• British Indian Army also fought in Ethiopia against the Italians and in Libya, Tuinisia and Algeria against Italy and Germany. 
• The bulk was committed to fight Japan- Malaya and Burma. 
• Indian forces played a role in liberating Italy from Nazi control. India contributed the 3rd largest Allied contingent in the Italian campaign after US and British forces. The 4th, 8th and 10th Divisions and 43rd Gurkha Infantry Brigade led the advance- Monte Cassino. 

Indian Nationalist Army:

• Armed force created by Indian nationalist Rash Behari Bose in 1942. 
• Aim to secure Indian independence, formed 1942 but collapsed and disbanded.
• Rash Bose handed over INA to Subhas Chandra Bose- revivial. 
• 4th July 1943, Bose assumed control and reinvigorated INA. 
• Under Bose, INA drew ex-prisoners and volunteers into war.  40,000 strong.
• Fought alongside Imperial Japanese Army vs British in Burma, Imphal and Kahima. 
• "Give me blood! I will give you freedom" 

After INA's initial formation, there was concern that further Indian troops would defect. This led to a reporting ban and propaganda campaign- 'Jiffs'.

The INA have a controversial legacy (associated with axis powers). Members were denied freedom fighter status. 

Muhammad Zafarullah Khan - presented by A. K. Fazul Huq (Bengal Prime Minister)

Political statement of Muslim League on the occasion of its 3 day session in Lahore. 

22 to 24 March 1940. 

Called for independent states- that geographically contiguous units are demorcated regions which should be constituted. 

Muslim League wanted independent Muslim state. 

Sir Stafford Cripps and his delegation travelled to India- Labour minister, friend of Nehru and Gandhi and sympathetic to India. 

They offered a 'bargain' to India. All Indian parties were invited to join an interim government of national unity under Viceroy and Council.

Divided Congress. 

Key points:

Congress didn't like a situation where states were allowed to opt out of a united India. 

British reactions:

Highlights panic in London. 

Campaign launched at the Bombay session of Congress by Gandhi on the 8th August 1942, during WWII, demanding an end to British rule in India. 

Cripps had failed, thus causing Congress to launch a new protest for 'an orderly British withdrawal' from India. Gandhi furthered this with his 'do or die' speech. The protest mostly concerned Indian citizens shouting 'Quit India!' at European people in India. 

Almost the entire leadership of Congress was imprisoned without trial following the speech. Britain had the support of the Muslim League, Viceroy's council, princely states, Imperial police, Indian civil service and the British Indian army. 

India did however have outside support from the USA, with FDR pressuring Churchill to give in to some of the Indian demands. 

The protest soon transformed from non-violent demonstrations with localised impact to violent demonstrations. Britain suppressed these with 100,000 imprisoned and many killed or injured. 

During WWII. 

2.1 million to 3 million died of starvation, malaria and disease in Bengal due to malnutrition, population displacement, lack of healthcare and conditions. 

There had been poor crops in Bengal- a cyclone on January 9 1943 flooded the rice fields with saltwater and prevented harvesting. 

Britain did not aid Bengal during the famine in fact- Britain ordered the destruction of boats and rice stocks in Bengal in fear the Japanese would seize the supplies off the coast, 'Denial Policy'.

India exported 70,000 tons of rice for the troops and people in Britain, despite the millions dying in Bengal.

Ended 1944 due to good rice crops. 

Meeting held between Viceroy Wavell and major political leaders of British India at Simla. 

Convened to agree on the Wavell Plan for self-rule. They reached a potential agreement that also provided separate electorates for Muslims and reduced majority powers for both communities. Stalled on Muslim representatives- Muslim League refused to back Congress plans where Congress appointed Muslim Representatives- considered last opportunity for a united India. 

Wavell Plan:

Britain found their temporary patrnoage of the Muslim League conflicted with their desire for the unity of India (pride in unifying India and doubts of the feasibility of Pakistan). This desire was symbolised within the Cabinet Mission: arrived New Delhi 24 March 1946. 

Stafford Cripps, Baron Pethick-Lawrence and A.V. Alexander- all favoured unity but found the Indian parties were unwilling to compromise. 

Cabinet Mission proposals... System of three tiers- province, provincial grouping and centre. Centres power was confined to foreign affairs, defence, currency, communications. Provinces keep other powers and establish 3 groups. 

The grouping of the provinces- 2 constituted by mainly Muslims in the west/east and the 3rd province was mostly Hindu areas in the south and centre. 

For example... Province A was the United Provinces, Bombay, Bihar, Orissa. Province B was Sind, Punjab and Baluchistan. Province C was Bengal and Assam. 

Reactions:

• The aim was to maintain unity but with the substance of Pakistan. 
• Jinnah wanted parity between India and Pakistan- found this in provincial groupings. 
• Muslim India equal to Hindu India.
• Muslim League accepted proposals on 6 June after Wavell assured that the League would be in the interim gov if Congress did not accept. 
• Congress accepted proposals but said the provinces should be allowed to stay out of groups if they did not want to join. 
• Meanwhile the League saw the groups as mandatory...
• ALSO- Congress said the sovereign assembly would not be bound to the plan but Jinnah insisted that it should be. 
• Groupings maintained unity but Congress leaders believed it would leave the centre without the strength it needed to achieve their ambitions.
• Congress were neither bound nor committed to the plan. 

Concerned by diminishing British pwoer, Wavell was eager to inagurate an interim government. Disregarding Jinnah's vote, he authorised a cabinet in which Nehru was interim PM. Sidelined and with his Pakistan of 'groups' refused, Jinnah was very angry and resorted to direct action...

On 2 September 1946, Nehru's cabinet was installed. 

Millions of Muslims flew black flags in protest. Jinnah did not join the interim gov but sent Liaquat Ali Khan in. Congress allowed him the less important post of finance minister. Khan infuritated Congress by using this role to prevent other ministries- imposibility of one single Indian gov. 

Britian tried to revive the cabinet mission's scheme by sending Nehru, Jinnah and Wavell to meet Attlee, Cripps and Pethick-Lawrence. The arguments were enough for Nehru to return to India and announce 'we have now altogether stopped looking towards London'. Wavell commenced the Constituent Assembly, which the League boycotted. Congress became more forceful and desired all League ministers to be removed. 

Wavell drew up a breakdown plan that provided gradual British exit, considered fatalistic by the Cabinet. He was then replaced by Lord Mountbatten. 

A day of widespread communal rioting between Muslims and Hindus in Calcutta, Bengal. 

Jinnah called for direct action day- wanted indpendent states. 

The cabinet mission had proposed a three tier structure to the future legislature of India. The concept of provinces had been included to accomodate the desires of the Muslim League, with Congress agreeing initially to the idea. The League believed Congress' agreement was insincere.

July 1946- withdrew agreement, announced a strike based on their wish for a Muslim state. 

16 August 1946- Direct Action Day called by Jinnah. 

This triggered huge riots in Calcutta. Over 4000 were killed and 10,000 were made homeless within the first 72 hours. Riots took place in Noakhali, Bihar, United Provinces, Punjab etc.

Britain and Congress blamed Jinnah. 

Lord Curzon 1899-1905:

Lord Minto 1905-1910:

Lord Hardinge 1910-1916:

Lord Chelmsford 1916-1921:

Lord Reading 1921-1926:

Lord Irwin 1926-1931:

Lord Willington 1931-1936:

Lord Linlithgow 1936-1944:

Lord Wavell 1944-1947:

Lord Mountbatten Mar 1947-Aug 1947:

Congress won 91% of non-Muslim constituencies, confirming to most Hindus that they were the natural successor from British rule. Out of a total 1585 seats, they won 923 (58.23%)

The Muslim League won 425 seats (26.81%), making them the 2nd highest voted party. They won all Muslim constituencies in the provincial legislatures, opening up the path towards Pakistan. Separate electorates ensured that Muslim contestants would compete with other Muslims, rather than non-Muslim or Hindu contestants. 

The Muslim League's biggest success was in Bengal where out of 119 seats they won 113. The League also won 54/64 seats in the United Provines, 34/40 in Bihar's Muslim seats. They also won all Muslim seats in Bombay and Madras, indicating they were representative for Muslim India. 

Congress formed ministries in Assam, Bihar, Bombay, Central Provinces, Madras, Orissa, United Provinces and the NWFP. 

Muslim League formed ministries in Bengal and Sind.