Psychopathology AS

?

Deviation from ideal mental health?

  • This is where abnormal behaviour deviates from the idea of how people should behave. 
  • According to Jahoda ideal mental health consists of having;
  • a positive attitude towards oneself
  • The ability to self-actualise
  • The ability to resist stress
  • Personal autonomy
  • An accurate perception of reality
  • The ability to adapt to one's environment
1 of 44

What is abnormality as statistical infrequency?

  • Behaviour is abnormal because it is statistically rare. It is based on the idea that behaviour is normally distributed and it is usually argued that people who are 2 standard deviations above or below the mean (2.145% of the population) are abnormal.
2 of 44

What is the GAF Scale?

  • Global Assessment of Functioning Scale:This is a scale from 0-100. 100 is superior functioning in a wide range of activities where life's problem's never get out of hand. 10 is persistent danger of hurting self or others or the persistent inability to maintain minimal person hygiene or serious suicidal acts with the expectation of death. 60 is moderate symptoms e.g. occassional panic attacks or moderate difficulty in social,occupational or school functioning.
3 of 44

Abnormality as the failure to function adequately?

  • This includes people whose behaviours that stop people from coping with the demands of everyday life such as the ability to work, have relationships or clean themselves properly which makes them considered as abnormal.
4 of 44

Abnormality as deviation from social norms?

  • Society has rules about what are acceptable behaviours, values and beliegs. Behaviour is abnormale if it deviates form what society considers proper or acceptable.
5 of 44

What are phobias?

  • Phobias are a type of anxiety disorder which menas that a primary symptom is therefore extreme anxiety. 
  • They are irrational fears that produce avoidance of the feared object or situation.
6 of 44

Emotional characteristics of phobias?

  • Feeling of unreasonableness, excessive and persistent fears as well as feelings of anxiety or panic.
  • The feelings are brought on by the presence or thought of a specific object or situation.
  • The feelings of anxiety are out of proportion to the actual danger posed.
7 of 44

Cognitive characteristics of phobias?

  • The phobic will have irrational thought processes. They will be resistant to rational arguements.
  • The person recognised that their fear is irrational which distinguishes between a phobia and a delusion.
8 of 44

What is the two-process model?

  • First stage = classical conditioning: Initiation (explains why phobias develop).
  • Second stage = operant conditioning: Maintenance (explains why phobias continue).
9 of 44

CC in phobias?

  • Classicial conditioning(CC) in phobias suggests that they are learnt through association. 
  • This can be seen in the case of Little Albert who learnt to be sacre of a white rat which he associated with the fear brought about due to a loud noise. 
  • A white rat was presented and he initially showed zero fear- Neutral stimulus.
  • A loud noise was the unconditioned stimulus.
  • His reaction was fear -unconditioned response
  • By pairing the noise with the rat, the rat aquires the same characteristics as the UCS and produces the same fear.
  • The fear becomes the conditioned response.
  • The rat becomes the conditioned stimulus and now produces fear on its own without being accompanied by the loud noise.
10 of 44

OC in phobias?

  • Operant conditioning (OC) explains why the fear continues and why people avoid the feared object.
  • Rewards reinforce behaviour.
  • Avoiding the feared object will reduce fear which is rewarding to the person who will repeat the behaviour and continue to avoid the object.
  • This is negative reinforcement. 
11 of 44

SL in phobias?

  • The social learning theory argues that phobias may be learnt by modelling the behaviour of others e.g. seeing your parent respond with fear to a spider means you might copy their behaviour and learn to also be scared of spiders.
12 of 44

Evolutionary explanation of phobias?

  • The evolutionary theory suggests that we are gentically programmed to make associations between potentially life-threatening stimuli and fear.
  • This would have helped our early ancestors in the EEA to survive as it woudl have been adaptive to fear spiders, heights and strangers.
  • The evolutionary theory explains why we rarely develop fears of modern object that are quite dangerous e.g. cars.
  • One study has found that infants aged 8-16 months failed to learn a fear of building blocks paired with a loud bell. This suggests that fear responses can only be learnt with living animals.
13 of 44

Cognitive explanation of phobias?

  • The cognitive explantion proposed that phobias develop because of irrational thinking.
  • These thoughts will create extreme anxiety and sometimes may trigger a phobia.
  • Support for the cognitive theory comes from the fact that cognitive treatments such as CBT can be more effective than behavioural therapies.
14 of 44

Diathesis-stress model with phobias?

  • The model proposed that we have a genetic predisposition to develop mental disorders such as phobias. But the order will only develop if there is an environmental trigger. This explains why not everyone who is bitten by a dog develops a phobia as they must already have a gentic predisposition.
15 of 44

What is SD?

  • Systematical desensitisation(SD) is where the individual constructs an anxiety heirarchy which consists of situations linked to their phobia. These situation are ordered from the least to most anxiety provoking. 
  • Relaxation training is then given with the aim of achieving complete relaxation. 
  • The patient is asked to imagine, as vividly as possible, the scene at the bottom of the heirarchy and relax at the same time. Once they feel fully relaxed they will work their way up the hierarchy- this is graded pairings.
  • SD can be done with real stimulus or imagining each stage in the hierarchy.
  • Graded pairing of the real stimulus is almost always more effective and long lasting than the imagined technique.
16 of 44

What is flooding?

  • This is a type of therapy which still involves exposure to the phobic stimulus however consists of one long session where the patient experiences their phobia at its worst.
  • At the same time, the practise relaxation until thier anxiety disappears. 
  • The sessionmay last 2-3 hours as the fear response has a time limit.
  • As adrenaline levels decrease a new-stimulus response link can be made between the feared stimulus and relaxation.
17 of 44

What is OCD?

  • OCD is calssed as an anxiety disorder. Prevalance is 1.3% in the UK.
  • It is characterised by two main types of symtom. These are:
  • Obsessions-persistent and recurrent thoughts or impulses which cause anxiety
  • Compulsion- repetitive behaviours or mental acts that the person feels driven to perform in response to an obsession. Carrying out the compulsion usually lowers the anxiety caused by the obsession.
18 of 44

Emotional characteristics of OCD?

  • Obsessions and compulsions are a source of anxiety and distress.
  • Sufferers are aware that their behaviour is excessive and this causes feelings of embarassment and shame.
19 of 44

Cognitive characteristics of OCD?

  • Obsessions are the cognitive characteristics. Behvaiours are performed to reduce the anxiety created by the obsessions. They are repetitive and can be acts like hand washing,checking or counting.
  • Patients feel they must perform these actions otherwise something dreadful might happen.
  • Sometimes the behaviours are not connected in a realistic way to avoid diastrous things happening.
20 of 44

Genetic factors of OCD?

  • People can inherit a predisposition for mental illness that is passed from one generation to the next in the DNA. If abnormality is genetic we would expect relatives who share genes to also share psychological abnomalities.
21 of 44

Neural explanations of OCD?

  • The development of mental disorders is explained in terms of an imbalance in the concentration of neurotransmitters, the chemical messengers that nerve cells use to communicate with each other.
  • The levels of a particular neurotransmitter may be too high or too low and therefore affect brain functioning.
22 of 44

Neuroanatomy and OCD?

  • Physical damage to brain structures that may occur during birth or due to an accident or brain malfunction due to neurotransmitter levels can cause OCD.
23 of 44

How do Family Studies work?

  • Family studies can be used to investigate the role of genes in abnormality. Biological relatives share genes and the closer their biological relationship the greater the number of genes they share. 
  • 1st degree relatives share 50% of their DNA. 
  • If abnormality is genetic then we would expect if one member of the family has a disorder then other members of the family should also have the disorder.
  • However, the problem is that as well as sharing genes biological relative also share the same environment so it is difficult to seperate out the effect of genes and environment.
24 of 44

How do twin studies work?

  • Twin studies are thought to reduce the problems of separating out genes and environment. In twin studies researchers compare monozygotic and dizygotic twins. MZ twins share 100% of their genes whereas DZ twins only share 50% of their genes. Both sets of twins share the same environment.
  • Therefore, if MZ twins are more similar than DZ twins it suggests a role of genes whereas if both sets of twins are similar it suggests a larger role for the environment. 
  • Researchers look at a number of twins that both have the disorder. This is known as concordance rate.
25 of 44

Genetic explanation of OCD?

  • The basic idea is that individuals inherit specific genes from their parents that are related to the onset of OCD.
  • Research suggests that the COMT gene may contribute to OCD, this regulated the production of the neurotransmitter dopamine. One form of the COMT gene has been found to be more common in OCD patients than people without the disorder. This variation produces lower activity of the COMT and higher dopamine levels.
  • Another possible candidate gene is the SERT gene which affects the transport of serotonin, creating lower levels of this neurotransmitter.
26 of 44

What did Taylor find?

  • Taylor found evidence to suggest that there might be up to 230 different genes involved in OCD. This suggests that OCD may be polygenic. This means it is not caused by a single gene, there are several involved.
27 of 44

Neural explanation of OCD?

  • Genes code for levels of neurotransmitters in the brain. These chemical transmit signals between nerves. Low serotonin and high dopamine levels have been linked to OCD. Abnormal levels of these NTs may result in abnormal brain circuits in OCD.
  • Several areas of the frontal lobe are thought to be abnormal in people with OCD. The frontal lobe is responsible for decision making and logical thinking;
  • The OFC is involved in decision making and worry about behavioyr. An overactive OFC would result in increased anxiety and increased planning to avoid anxiety.
  • The thalamus is a brain area whose functions include cleaning,checking and other safety behaviours. An overactive thalamus would result in an increased motiviation to check for safety.
  • Serotonin and dopamine are linked to these areas of the brain. Serotonin plays a key role in the functioning of the OFC and caudate nucleus, therefore abnormal levels of serotonin may cause these areas to malfunction. Dopamine is also linked to this system; high levels lead to over activity.
28 of 44

What does the caudate nucleus do?

  • The OFC sends signals to the thalamus about things that are worrying e.g. potentia germ hazard. In a normal person the caudate nucleus suppresses signal from the OFC.
  • However, when it is damaged it fails to supress minor worry signals and the thalamus is alerted which in turn sends signals back to the OFC letting it know that it has carried out the behaviour thus reducing anixiety, confirming the worry and causing a worry circuit.
29 of 44

Antidepressant drugs

  • These are the most commonly used drugs to treat OCD. Low levels of serotonin are associated with depression and OCD, so the drugs increase the levels of serotonin.
  • Low levels of serotonin are linked to the worry circuit so increasing these levels may normalise the circuit and the OFC and reduce the anxiety associated with OCD.
30 of 44

Anti-anxiety drugs

  • Benzodiazepines(BZs) are sedatives which inhibit the nervous system and produce muscle relaxation and an overall calming effect. They bind to recepto sites which produce a natural tranquilliser and increase the activity of GABA, which alters the activity of our other neurotransmitters producing and inhibitory effect on the brain.
31 of 44

Clinical trials using placebos

  • When investigating the effectiveness of drug treatments researchers cannot just compare the imporvement in patients taking the drug and patients undergoing no treatment. This is because of expectancy effects. If patients are given a drug to treat their symptoms then because they think it will work, they often report an improvement in symptoms even if the drug itself does nothing. This is the placebo effect. 
  • Because of this clincal trials must cmpare the effectiveness of the drug with a placebo. If patients in the drug group have a greater improvement than the placebo group then this is due to the drug rather than expectancy effects.
  • The patient should not be aware of which condition they are in. This is known as a single blind trial. In most trials the doctors assessing the patients are also unaware of whether the patient is on the drug or the placebo. This is a double blind trial. This is to stop researcher expectancy affecting the results.
32 of 44

Economic implications of research

  • The McCrone Report estimated the direct costs of mental health in England at about 22.5 billion a year. The report comments on the use of drugs versus psychological therapies saying, ' the number of people receiving mediction provides a much greater economic gain than psychological therapes, which may produce similar benefits compared with medication but are far more expensive.' 
  • However, research shows that people with OCD are likely to relapse after ceasing drug therapy. Therefore, also psychological therapy is initially more expensive the long-term benefits may make it more economically sound so that people would have less time off work.
33 of 44

Economic implications of research

  • The McCrone Report estimated the direct costs of mental health in England at about 22.5 billion a year. The report comments on the use of drugs versus psychological therapies saying, ' the number of people receiving mediction provides a much greater economic gain than psychological therapes, which may produce similar benefits compared with medication but are far more expensive.' 
  • However, research shows that people with OCD are likely to relapse after ceasing drug therapy. Therefore, also psychological therapy is initially more expensive the long-term benefits may make it more economically sound so that people would have less time off work.
34 of 44

What is depression?

  • Depression is an example of a mood disorder. Mood is the way a person feels inside i.e. thier internal emotional experience. Mood disorders such as depression are characterised by dramatic hanges or extremes of mood. 
  • Depression occurs in 1 in 10 adults in the UK.
35 of 44

Emotional characteristics of depression?

  • Sadess is the most common description people give of their depressed state as well as feeling empty. People also report all kinds of other negative feelings like feeling worthlessness, hopless and general low self-esteem.
  • People also report feeling a loss of interest and pleasure in usual hobbies and activities as well as social withdrawal. They don't often want to be around anybody and prefer to be alone. This is associated with feelings of despair and loss of control.
  • Anger is also associated with depression wither directed at others or turned inwards towards themselves.
36 of 44

Behavioural characteristics of depression?

  • In most patients there's a shift in energy level either reduced or increased.  Many report tiredness and wanting to sleep all the time however many feel agitated and restless and may pace around the room.
  • Sleep may be affected some sleeping more but others suffering with insomnia as they lay awake worrying about things. Appetite may also be affected and again this can be eating more or less than usual.
37 of 44

Cognitive characteristics of depression?

  • Negative emotions are associated with negative thoughts, so people develop a negative slef-concept of themselves. They have a negative view of the world and a negative set of expectations which can be self-fulfilling .
  • For example, if you beleive you are going to fail an exam that belief might make you not try as hard as you think it's hopeless and therefore you will fail. In general these thoughts are irrational and do not reflect reality.
38 of 44

What is Ellis' ABC model?

  • Ellis proposed that the key to mental disorders such as depression lay in irrational thinking. In his ABC model he argues;
  • A- Activating event such as getting fired from work.
  • B- Subsequent belief which may be rational or irrational( the company was overstaffed or I am completely useless).
  • C- is the consequence, rational beliefs lead to healthy emotions and behaviours (look for a new job) and irrational ones lead to unhealthy emotions(depression).
  • He also argues the sources of irrational beliefs lie in mustabatory thinking. This is thinking that certain assumptions must be true in order to be happy. He argued there are 3 main ones;

1. I must be approved of or accepted by people.

2. I must do well or I am worthless.

3. The world must give me happiness or I will die.

  • People who think like this will be very disppointed and at worst depressed.These 'musts' need to be challeneged in order to be mentally healthy.
39 of 44

What did Beck believe about depression?

  • Beck believed that depression prone individuals develop a negative self-schema. They posses a set of beliefs and expectations of themselves that are essentially negative and pessimistic. Beck claimed that these may be acquired during childhood as a result of traumatic experiences. We interpret new information in light of our existing schema. Once we have a negative self-schema it is difficult to interpret new information about ourselves in a positive way.
  • This is because we adopt a confirmation bias where we look to confirm our beliefs as opposed to disprove them. Schema theory showed us that we remember things more easily if they fit into out schnma and may even distort information to fit our schema. Thus if we have a negative self-schema we seek out evidence to confirm this and remember evidence consistent with our schema.
40 of 44

What are cognitive biases?

  • People with negative self-schemas become prone to making logical errors in their thinking and they tend to focus selectively on certain aspects of a situation and ignoring equally relevant information. Beck called these 'cognitive biases.' These include the following;

1. Overgeneralisation- a person arrives at a sweeping conclusion based on a single and trivial event e.g. concluding you're going to fail because you get one C on a homework when you normally get As. Overgeneralisation implies if one does poorly in one thing, you assume failure in all related things.

2. Black and white thinking- everything is seen in a polarised manner so even a slight waiver from perfection is considered a failure e.g. in depression, thinking that if it isn't perfect it is awful, achieve all As but one B and you're therefore stupid.

41 of 44

What is the negative triad?

  • Beck proposed that all these negative self-schemas and conitive biases can lead to pessimistic and irrational view of three key elements in a person's beleif system that he called a 'negative triad.'
  • Beck maintained there are 3 components to this;

1. Negative views of the self e.g. I'm worthless and helpless.

2. Negative views of the world e.g. It is full of obstacles.

3. Negative views of the future e.g. It will continue in the same way.

  • These thoughts are not the result of conscious intention but automatic. These components will interact and interfere with cognitive processing, the negative thoughts will lead to symptoms of depression and then symptoms lead to more negative thoughts.
42 of 44

What is REBT?

  • Rational-Emotion Behaviour Therapy.
  • REBT is a type of CBT developed by Ellis and is based on the idea that many problems are a result of irrational thinking. 
  • Individuals frequently develop self-defeating habits because of faulty beliefs about themsleves and the world around them. REBT helps clients to understand this irrationality and the consequences of thinking in this way. It helps them to subustitute this thinking for more effective problem-solving method- this is 'cognitive restructuring.'
  • According to REBT, beliefs are the main influence behind our emotional well-being.
  • Irrational beliefs, experienced as self-defeating thoughts are disruptive and lead to unproductive outcomes. 
  • These beiefs for some people can transform life's ordinary disppointments into awful catastophes. Such people can talk themselves into emotional traumas yet still believe it is the events rather than their thoughts that are upsetting them. Ellis called this 'awfulising.'
43 of 44

What is disputing?

  • Ellis argued if patients develop a dispute system to challenge their beliefs they will no longer suffer such emotional problems e.g. they may assume they receive no social invitation because no one likely them a more likley explanation is that they are busy.
  • REBT focuses on changing the self-defeating beliefs. The client is encouraged to dispute these beliefs:
  • Logical disputing- self-defeating beliefs do not follow logically from the information avalible(does this belief make sense?)
  • Empirical disputing- self-defeating beliefs may not be consistent with reality(Where is the evidence to support this belief?)
  • Pragmatic disputing- The lack of usefulness of self-defeating beliefs(How is this belief likely to help you?).
  • Effective disuputing changes self-defeating beliefs into more rational ones so the individual can movve from awfulising to more rational interpretations of events. This in turn will make the client feel better and eventually more self-accepting.
  • The clients have homework to do where they have to consider to what extent therir beliefs are rational.
44 of 44

Comments

No comments have yet been made

Similar Psychology resources:

See all Psychology resources »See all Abnormality resources »