Holderness Coast, East Yorkshire

• Hornsea-left alone to erode, has few groynes, shallow beaches, and has large erosion. Many people find it difficult to get a mortgage 
• Mappleton-has rock armour and groynes which has slowed down the erosion, which has maintained some parrts of the area 
• Flamborough-majority is made up of chalk which helps cope with erosion much better 
• Ringborough-homes worth less than the defence costs so no government help
• Withernsea-has sea walls, groynes, rip-rap, but the main road is only 34 metres away from the cliff edge, which, if it's lost, impacts the businesses. In 1991, £1.9million was spent on 60 tonnes of granite and two large rock groynes, along with the rip-rap to help protect the coast

• buildings from 1973 removed as very close to the cliff edge 
• farms have gone, along with businesses 
• houses and caravan parks have been taken by the sea
• 50 miles of the coast is boulder clay which is loosely bound together, very susceptible to coastal erosion throuhg hydraulic action, abrasion, attrition etc. 
• 26m of the cliff was removed in Spring 2008
• more beach sediment would help

• Average erosion of 1.25m per year 
• occurs differently across coast at 0m to 6m per year 
• variations in geology explain these different erosion rates
• Barmston to Kilnsea consists of unconsolidates boulder clay 
• coastal defences at Hornsea, Mappleton and Withernsea have stopped erosion
• starvation of sediment further along beach (south) due to groynes interupting longshore drift, lead to greater erosion just south of the defences
• variations in cliff height and susceptibility to erosion of some areas of boulder clay 
• mass movement susceptibility in some locations 
• erosion occurs every 6 months at Hollym between 1999 and 2014-0-11m 
• winter storms cause most erosion as go with high spring tide
• erosion lower in autumn as storms passed by then 
• ords are deep hollows on beach running parallel to cliff line at base of cliff which concentrate erosion by allowing waves to directly attack the cliff with little energy disspitation (dispsersion of energy) on the beach
• Is a regional, economic centre of 8,500 people which has important historic sites and is a very important lack habitat for birds-is a desgnated Special Protection Area and Site of Special Interest

No active intervention: no investment in defence against flooding or erosion, whether or not coastal defences have existed previously. The coast is allowed to erode

Hold the line: build or maintain coastal defences so position of shoreline remains the same over time

Managed realignment: allow coast to move naturally, but manage the process to direct it in certain areas 

Advance the line: build new coastal defences on the seaward side of the existing coastline, usually involing land reclamation

• depositional landform formed from sediment brough down the Nile by annual floods 
• consturction of the Aswan High Dam in the 1960s, river discharge fell from 35 billion m3 per year to 10 billion m3
• sediment volume fell from 130 million tonnes to 15 million tonnes 
• water withdrawls for industry, cities, farming from reservoir behind the dam, and sediment being trapped by the reservoir and dam has caused this 
• erosion has since increased from 20m to 25m per year, to now 200m per year as it's starved of sediment 

• January 1953 also occured 
• 1953 had 2,500 peoples lives taken in the Netherlands, but also 325 in the UK
• in December 2013, it occured again
• very deep depression name 'Cyclone Xaver' moved southeast down the North Sea
• storm moved over Iceland, deepend dramatically with very low air pressure (962 millibars)
• winds of up to 140 mph 
• gale-force northerly winds drove storm waves onto North Sea coasts
• storm surge of 5.8 m recorded at Immingham in Lincolnshire 
• went with high tide in many locations, making flooding even worse

• population of 340,000 people
• has 1,200 islands
• highest point is at 2.3 metres 
• sea level rise of 50cm by 2100 would mean Maldives would lose 77% of its land area 
• areas left would become vulnerable to storm surges and erosion
• created in Malé a 3m high sea wall 
• Hulhumalé is a new artifical island build from coral and sediment being dredged from the seabed between 1997 and 2002-cost $32 million 
• Malé (the capital) is a densely populated city of 110,000 people occupying 2km3 of land 
• relies heavily on international tourism for its economy as it has a reputation for its tropical ocean paradise 
• 100 luxury island resorts are present, with 1 million arrivals in 2013 
• Import duties account for 90% of income and 60% of country's foreign exchange earnings
• country is heavily in debt-25% of GDP spent on diesel fuel 
• survives heavily on fishing-fell by 60% between 2006 and 2011 
• richest country in South Asia of £3000 a year income, yet half of population live on less than $1 a day 

• Mohamed Nasheed in November 2008 had an intention to buy land abroad as a new homeland for Maldivians to live in, if their land was drowned 
• promised to create a 'soverign wealth fund' from tourist reserves 
• March 2009 promised that the Maldives would be swicthed to its dependence on oil to working on 100% renewable energy 
• September 2009 had Japanese government give $10 million to equip schools and government buildings in Malé with solar panels 
• Ocotober 2009 had a underwater cabinet meeting 
• November 2009 outlined plans for 30 wind farms close to Malé, providing 40% of country's energy, producing 75 MW at full capacity 
• September 2011 released Maldives Renewable Energy Investment Framework aiming to reduce 80-90% of electricity emissions by 2020 
• also targeted to have 60% of its electricity be from solar power, along with biomass power stations on larger islands 

• hard-enginerring megaproject 
• started after three weeks from the devastation of the 1953 North Sea floods
  • aimed to reduce risk of flooding in low-lying Eastern Schledt area, where much of the land is below sea level
  • shorten length of coastlne exposed to the sea by 700km 
  • control flow of Rhine, Maas and Scheldt rivers to reduce flood risk
  • maintain safe access to North Sea for shipping from important Dutch ports such as Rotterdam 
• designed to protect 1:2000 year coastal flood and 1:250 year river flood return period 
• took place between 1958 and 1997 
• series of damds and sluice gates constructed between islands of Eastern Schelt 
• were designed to be shut once a storm surge hit to control the flow of water and shut the sea out 
• enbankments built to act as flood walls around islands + along coast 
• cost $5 billion 
• risk of rising sea levels means they'll have to continue to raise and strengthen flood defences 
• 2008 Dutch report concluded that sea level rise of 1.3m by 2100 meant $1.5bn needed to be spent on new defences by 2100