Hazards

• Occur between sea and land, beginning in areas of sea temperature over 27 decrees C.
• Those formed North of the equator move North, and those formed South move South.
• Form in between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn.
• Move East to West.

• Seas with a surface temperature of 27 degrees C or more, and a depth of warm water of at least 60m.
• Low air pressure, with the air beginning to rise.
• Damp moist air with a relative humidity of 60% or more.
• Rising, spiralling air.

• As storm approaches, air pressure and temperature drop.
• Cloud cover and rainfall increase.
• At the eye-wall, huge cumulonimbus clouds rise up, torrential rain falls and wind speeds reach their max.
• At the centre, eye is calm, clear, warm and dry.
• Other eye -wall - towereing clouds, heavy rain and very strong winds. However, pressure rises.
• Edge of storm, air pressure and temperature rise, winds decrease, clouds break up and showers.

Impacts:

• 80% of city flooded
• No clean drinking water
• No electricity
• People standed on rooftops and drowning
• Riots and looting
• At least 1800 died.

• Weather stations on land and sea record data e.g. windspeed allowing authorities to prepare.
• Radiosonde ballons sent into hurricane and record pressure, temp and humdidity.
• Computers in the National Hurricane Centre process all data and predict.
• Levees - raised embankments prevent flooding.
• Raised buildings on stilts reducing the chance of flood damage.
• Brick and concrete buildings are stronger.
• Education - evacuation plan and survival kits.
• Drills and training.

Short term

• Shelter in superdome - however became overcrowded
• Pakistan sent doctors - as a result, many people survived diseases and hypothermia.
• Canada sent helicopters and other rescue equipment - due to strong winds they could only help a limited number of people.
• Countries send food, water, beds and blankets - many still stranded
• Police deployed to maintain calm - however, forced into arrests due to looting.

Long term

• US gov gave $110bn to rebuild areas but 1 year later only $44bn had been spent.
• Road to home scheme - 7 years later, there werestill nearly 5000 people homeless.
• Reinstate Levees
• Rebuild infrastructure.

• Mainly occur on plate boundaries.
• Found along the edge of continental land masses
• Commonly occur ont he edge of the Pacific Ocean, in the ring of fire in places such as California, Alaska and East Asia.

Constructive Plate Boundary

• Plates are being forced away from each other due to convection currents in the mantle.
• Tension rises.
• Eventually, some of the rocks crack and move sharply. This movement sends shockwaves to the surface, causing the ground to shake.

Destructive Plate Boundary

• Crust moves in a series of jerks due to denser oceanic plate being forced underneath the lighter continental plate.
• As the plate moves down, pressure and friction build. 
• Tension causes crust to jerk downwards into the mantle, with the force so great that it sends out shockwaves to the surface, shaking the ground.

Conservative 

• Plates are sliding past each other
• Friction is high and pressure builds.
• Over time, the pressure exceeds the friction causing a sudden jerk, which sends shockwaves to the surface.

Causes

• Lies on edge of Caribbean plate and North American plate - conservative plate boundary.
• Focus was only 10 miles deem, meaning shockwaves had a lot of energy when hitting the surface.
• 'L' seismic waves, most destructive type of wave.

People

• 220,000 died, further 250,000 injured.
• 1 million forced to sleep on streets.
• Many isolated away from necessary medical care.
• Huge unemployment
• Outbreak of cholera due to dirty water.

Landscape

• 1/3 of Port au Prince buildings collapsed.
• Water, communications and electricity lines damaged.
• Debris covered roads.
• Landslides destroyed forests, homes and communities as so many houses were built on marginal land (no ownership regulations so soil wasn't maintained).

Short Term

• Water delivered in tankards.
• Rescue and hospital teams arrived within 24 hours.
• Emergency appeals sent worldwide for donations and resources.
• Hygiene kits to prevent spread of disease.
• NGO's set up temporary tent camps, however, these are still used as homes years on.

Long Term

• NGO's attempted to regenerate businesses by offering micro-credit schemes. These would provide a sustainable way for victims to live/recover.
• $2 billion spent to remove cholera.
• Oxfam provided money for local builders to rebuild the city.
• Rice farming was improved to produce greater yields, increasing food security.
• Water pump system introduced to give reliable supply of drinking water.

• Simulation exercises to prepare people for next diaster
• Earthquake proof housing
• Improved infrastructure to reduce isolation.
• Flexible gas, water and power lines.
• Communication system to alert local people of impending disaster in plenty of time.
• Careful monitoring of the situation using appropriate instraments e.g. satellites.

• Occur at plate boundaries, especially in the Pacific Ocean as there is a lot of plate activity in the pacific ring of fire.
• Occur at destructive plate boundaries. The denser oceanic plate subducts under the less dense continental plate into the mantle due to convection currents. Here, it melts and forms a pluton of magma which rises through the crust, causing an explosive eruption of lava. 
• They also occur at constructive plate boundaries. As two plates move away from each other, liquid rock from the mantle rises through the cracks. When the magma reaches the surface, an eruption will occur. Lava cools and solidifies, and fills the crack where the two plates moved apart. As the plates continue to move apart, the process repeats.

People

• killed 57 people
• 198 had to be rescued due to mudflows destroying homes
• Locals evacuated and nearby ares were cut off to prevent tourists/residents being in danger.
• Locals homeless.

Landscape

• Many fish died because of polluted rivers due to ash.
• Landslide buried the North Fork Toutle river to a depth of 200m.
• Pyroclastic flow killed every form of plan and animal life within 25km North of volcano.
• Fully-grown fir trees were flattened.
• 7000 animals died, due to mudflow destrorying habitats.

Short term

• 200,000 people were temporarily employed in clean-up operation
• 1 million tonnes of ash were removed from roads and airports, costing $1m
• Rescue senters for homeless
• Emergency services helped those trapped or injured.

Long term

• Millions of trees replanted, but it will be 2050 before old biodiversity returns.
• $145m to repair infrastructure and rebuild homes.
• Federal and state money was given for new salmon hatcheries and farmers were compensated.
• Local rivers were dredged to remove logs and levees were built up beside the Colombia to reduce flooding.

• Part of the mountain was closed off before the eruption
• 2000 people evacuated before and during the eruption - saving many lives.