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Production of Wood Pulp

Mechanical Pulp - Soaked in Water and Debarked - Made in the UK, Used for newspaper etc...

  • 90% of wood is used, Low Costs.
  • Makes Low Quality Paper, low strenght and can yellow.

 Chemical Pulp - Debarked and cut down the grain 2cm Chips, Stored in Acid/Alkali to seperated liginin - Not made in the UK, Makes Higher Quality Paper...

  • Higher Quality paper, fewer impurities.
  • More Waste.

 Waste Pulp - Made from recycled paper and board, can be mixed with virgin fibers to make higher quality paper - Makes Low Quality Paper...

  • Recycles old paper
  • Low Quality paper, cannont keep recycling, still uses lots of energy in processing.
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Fourdrinier Process

Wet End - Pulp is Diluted in Water, put in Head Box, Continuous Stream is Pumped through a slit on moving Wire Gauze to Drain Water, Watermarks can be added by Raised Gauze.

Press Section - Rollers wring out Excess Water, Stretched Pulp to Rough Paper, Gap between Rollers is changed to Thickness required.

Dryer Section - Dries using Steam-Heated Rollers, Sizing agents, starches and resins can be added now.

Calender Section - Paper is fed through Rollers to smooth out a continuos Thickness, the Presseure determines the Finish of the Paper.

The paper is then wound onto webs and stored.

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Properties of Paper and Board

Choise of Paper is often Decided by - 

  • The Design Requirments
  • The Printing Process
  • Economic Considerations

Weight and Size - 

  • Paper Weight - "GSM" Grams per Square Metre - Classified as Board after 220gsm
  • Card and Board - Measured in Microns/Micrometers
  • Thickness of Card and Board - Measured in PLY

Common Drawing Papers - 

  • Layout Paper - 50gsm, Thin and Translucent, allows tracing through to another sheet, relitevely expensive.
  • Tracing Paper -60-90gsm, Thin and Transparent, Pale Grey, Preferred by Draughtsmen, Heavier Weight can be Expensive.
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Properties of Paper and Board

  • Copier Paper - 80gsm, Lightweight, Used for Printing and Photocopying, General use, Available in Colours, Inexpensive when in Bulk.
  • Cartridge Paper - 120-150gsm, Creamy White, Slight Texture, Good Drawing Paper, Opaque, More Expensive than Copier.

Commercial Printing Papers - 

  • Bond Paper - 50gsm+, High Quality, Often Watermarked, Letterhead Paper or Paper for Electronic Printers, Made from Rag Pulp, Inexpensive when in Bulk.
  • Coated paper - 70-300gsm, Covered for Smooth Surface Finish, used for High Quality Printing, Available in Gloss...Matte...Satin or Silk, Relatively expensive.

Commercial Card and Board - 

  • Recycled Card - 220gsm+, Made from % of Waste Pulp, Environmentally Friendly, Disposable, Low Quality, Flecked Apperance, Can be Coloured, Inexpensive.
  • Mounting Board - 1000-1500 Microns, Thick Board, Coloured one side, used to Mount Work on, High Quality, Strong and Rigid, Expensive.
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Properties of Paper and Board

Cartonboards - 

Used in Reatil Packaging, High Quality, High Speed Printing...Cutting...Creasing and Gluing.

  • Folding Box Board - Top...Bleached Virgin Pulp, Middle...UnBleached, Inside Layer...Bleached. Used in Food Packaging, Good for Scoring, Bending, Creasing, Printing and is Inexpensive.
  • Corrugated Board - Fluted Paper Layer between two paper Liners, used as Protective Packaging for Fragile Goods...Boxes etc, Impact Resistant and Strong, Recyclable, Low Cost.
  • Solid White Board - Pure Bleached Wood Pulp, Packaging for frozen foods or Pharmaceuticals, Strong and Rigid, Good Printing Surface, Expensive.
  • Foil-Lined Board - Laminated foil coating, Foil in Matte...Gloss...Gold or Silver, Used in Cosmetic Cartons, Pre Packed Food, Visual Impact, Moisture Barrier, Expensive.
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Metals

Ferrous Metals - Mainly Iron, includes small additions of other materials, almost all are Magnetic.

Non-Ferrous Metals - Contain no Iron, are not Magnetic.

Alloys - Mixing 2+ Metals and Sometimes other Elements, Producing Metals with enhanced Properties.

Advantages of Metals in Commercial Packaging - 

  • Added Security - Not changed unless obvious
  • Variety of Standard Sizes eg Drinks Cans
  • Can be directly Printed onto - Effective Point of Sale

Aluminium - 

  • Strong, Lightweight, Easy to Mould, Pure Metal, Eaily Recycled, Does not Rust.
  • Alumina is Extracted from Bauxite, Electrolysed - uses lots of Metal.
  • Does not loose its Quality, Saves Energy and is Sustainable.
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Metals

Tin - 

  • From Tin Oxide, Smelted by Reductionswith Carbon in a Reverberatory Furnace.
  • Able to Mix with majority of other Metals.
  • Low Melt Point - Essential Ingredient in Soldering.
  • Non Toxic, Doesnt Corrode - Ideal for Steel in Food Cans.

Steel - 

  • Usually in the Form of a TinPlate, Lightweight, Easily Recycled and Easily Moulded.
  • Produced from Iron Ore, takes lots of Energy to Convert, Has to Heat in Furnace at High Temperature, Magnetic making it Easy to Sort in Recycling Plants.
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Metals

Alloys -

Stainless steel - 87% Carbon Steel (Strength) - 13% Chromium (Resistance and Wear). Over 150 Grades Available. Used in Cutlery, Jewelry, Cookware and Building Construction.

  • Resistant to Corrosion, Rust and Staining. High Quality Surface Finish, Low Maintanece, 100% Recyclable.
  • Relatively Expensive, Hard to Machine.

Duralumin - 93.5% Aluminium (Strength/Lightness) - 4.4% Copper (Strength) - 1.5% Magnesium as Alloying Agent - 0.6% Maganese to Remove Oxygen.

  • Good Strength to Weight Ratio, Hard/Tough, Highly Resistant to Corrosion Cracking, Machines/Casts well, High Performance in Extreme Temperatures.

  • Can Suffer from Corrosion, Becomes Brittle through Fatigue.

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Polymers

Polymers in Commercial Packaging -

Thermoplastics - used in Packaging, when Heated can Form into many Shapes Permenantly, can be Remoulded (Easily Recycled).

  • Lightweight, Versitile, Strong, Durable, Impact and Water Resistant, Easily Formed and Remoulded, Easy to Print on, Inexpensive, Recyclable. 

Styrofoam in Modelling - 

  • Is used for Insulating Buildings but also useful for Modelling. It is Rigid, High Compressive Strength, Easy to Cut and Shape with Hand Tools, can be Sanded for Smooth Finish.
  • Can change quality with Layers of Plaster, Sanding smooth or using spray paints.
  • Available in Range of Thicknesses, Easily Glued with PVA and can be Painted for Quality.
  • It is Weak, Breaks Easily, Can be Dented or Ripped by Filing.
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Polymers

PET - Carbonated Drinks Bottles, Highly Flavoured Food, Microwavable Food Trays.

  • No Flavour, Crystal Clear Look, Tough, Light.

HDPE - Unbreakable Bottles (Detergents etc...) Thin Packaging Sheets.

  • Resistant to Chemicals, Barrier to Water, Decorative when Coloured, Lightweight, Rigid.

PVC - Packaging Toiletries, Pharmaceutical Products, Food/Juice/Confectionery.

  • Weather Resistant, Chemical Resistant, Strong, Tough, Manufactured Flexible/Rigid.

LDPE - Cling Film, Milk Carton Coatings.

  • Chemical Resistant, Barrier to water, Tough, Decorative when Coloured, Flexible.

PP - Food Packaging, Yougurt Pots, Sweet/Snack Wrappers, Laminating Board/Paper.

  • Lightweight, Rigid, Chemical Resistant, Versitile, Impact Resistance.

PS - (Rigid) CD Cases, Transparent, Rigid, Lightweight, Low Water Absorption. (Expanded) Egg Cartons, Meat Trays, Cups, Impact Resistance, Insulator, Durable, Light.

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Polymers

Acrylic - 

  • Tradenames Include Plexiglas and Perspex.
  • Cast into Sheets also Available in Rods, Self Finishing.
  • Wide Range of Uses.
  • Withstands Extreme Weather, Chemical Resistant, Durable, Easy to fabricate, Aesthetics.
  • Clear/Frosted/Coloured, Low Cost, Lightweight, Substitute for Glass.
  • Brittleness, Low Scratch Resistance, Cracks Easily, Can Snap Easily.

Environmental Concerns - 

  • Sustainability, Made from Oil - Running out, Consumes lots of Energy - Producing Pollution.
  • Disposing is Hard - Doesn't Degrade well. Cannot Incinerate - Toxic Fumes.
  • Recycling and Sorting can be Slow and Labour Intensive. Can be Unprofitable.
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Wood

Hardwoods - 

  • Produced from Broad Leaved Trees with enclosed Seeds e.g. Oak, Mahogany, Beech, Ash.
  • Commonly grown in Warmer Climates - Taking 100 Years to reach Maturity.
  • Tough and Strong
  • Decorative Finish
  • Expensive due to Age and Location also High Quality, Except Balsa Wood.

Softwoods - 

  • Produced from cone-bearing Conifers - Needle Like Leaves 
  • Grow Quicker there for cheaper
  • Easier to work with, Lightweight - Suitable for Modelling.
  • Contain a Grain, Harder to Block Model with.
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Composites

Composites - 2+ Materials combined by bonding - Improving Mechanical, Functional and Aethetic Properties.

Glass Reinforced Plastics (FiberGlass) -

  • From Epoxy Resin reinforced by fine Fibers of Glass (Woven), Plastic for Compressive Strength and Glass for Tensile Strength.
  • Resin (liquid) has Hardener added and becomes solid. Glass provides structure, Resin and Additives bonds Fibers together.
  • Can be made Smooth by High Polished Mould - Once side Polished, Other Side Rough.
  • Canoes, Rides, Fish Ponds.
  • Strength:Weight Ratio, Resistant to Corrosion, Water Resistant, Colours, Repaired Easily.
  • Expensive, Specialised Manufacturing Process, High Quality Mould Needed.
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Composites

Carbon Fiber - 

  • More Recent, Using Carbon Fibers.
  • Filaments woven in Different Directions to form Fabric.
  • Much Stronger than GRP - used for High Preformance Structures.
  • Used in Sports equiptment - Rackets, Fishing Rods, Bicycle Frames and Wheels.
  • Very Expensive, Only Black, Cannot be Repaired or Recycled Easily.

Medium Density Fiberboard -

  •  From Wood Chips - Heat/pressure added to make Fluffy/Soft Pulp + Synthetic Resin Adhesive Bond Fibers. Heat Pressed.
  • Flat Packed Furnitur, General Joinery Work etc...
  • Less Expensive, available in Large Sheets, No Grain, Strength Consistant.
  • Heavy, Requires Finish, Swells when Waterlogged, Warps if not Sealed, Irritates Eyes.
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Modern Materials and Products

Liquid Crystal Displays -

  • Carbon based Compounds, when Voltage applied and Light hits it appears Dark
  • In Digital Clocks, LCD Display - 7 digit display.
  • Small Current Needed - Portable.
  • Now Full Colour LCD - Laptops (Pixels Red, Green and Blue Filters)

Phosphorescent Pigments - 

  • Absorbe Energy during Day release at Night. Not Radioactive.
  • Can be Manufactured into Polymers  - Glow in the Dark.

Electroliminescent Lighting (EL) - 

  • Converts Electrical Energy to Light.
  • Extremely Low Power Consumption
  • Backlights for LCD displays or Advertising.
  • Paper thin Wires, Strips, Panels - Applied to Designs - Bus Shelters, Sides of Buses, Billboards.
  • Water proof, High Visibility, Reliable.
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Smart Materials

Thermochromic Liquid Crystals - 

  • Forehead Thermometers (Flat Ones)
  • Conductive Ink Printed on, with Temperature Gauge on Top in Normal Ink, on Top is a Thermochromic layer (Black when Cool).
  • Available in Graphics revealed with Heat and sometiems a Fridge.

Piezoelectric Crystals - 

  • Expands/Contracts when Electric applied - Mechanical stress into Electrical Signals.
  • Crystal recieves Charge causes Vibrate inwards, Force ink out, Pull ink into Reservoir.
  • Example - Inkjet Printers.

Smart Ink - 

  • Designed to mimic ordinary Ink on Paper, Electronic Paper designed to overcome Limitions Computer Screens - looking like normal Paper.
  • Used in such as a Kindle - only use power when page is refreshed.
  • Each pixel is a tiny point with black and white beads, White is Positive and Black is Negative.
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Smart Materials

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) - 

  • Uses Tags on Products to Store Data - Often used to Track Pallets of Production (Librarys)
  • Based on Reception Radio Frequency between Transmitter/Transponder.
  • Available in Active and Passive Forms

Active Transponders - 

  • Battery Powered
  • Expensive
  • Have Limited Lifetime

Passive Transponders - 

  • Power needed for Electromagnetic Signals
  • Strength falls Quickly 
  • Pallet Tracking
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