The Structure of Conversation

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  • Created by: HJC123
  • Created on: 26-01-17 21:43

Grammar

  • Speech is not structured into neatly composed sentences
  • Interrupted constructions: one construction is abandoned in favour of another, e.g. 'I could have (.) we should have'
  • Disrupted constructions: for example, 'he knows about computers (.) how to fix them'
  • Incomplete constructions: e.g. 'Beckham to Owen' instead of 'Beckham passes the ball to Owen'
  • Non-standard grammar reflects the informality of speech, e.g. 'we was going to get something to eat'
  • Ellipses: omission of words, e.g. 'want to go out?' instead of 'do you want to go out?'
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Deictic Expressions

  • Deictic expressions can refer equally to time, e.g. 'yesterday', 'now', 'then', 'tomorrow', etc.
  • Expressions which cannot be understood unless the context of the situation is known. Language which points. For example, the pronouns 'I', 'we', 'you', 'he'/'she'/'it'
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Lexis

  • More colloquial (informal) expressions will be found, e.g. 'I gave him a quid'
  • More slang, e.g. 'Let's play tig in the ten foot'
  • More contractions,e.g. 'I'll come home'
  • Phatic expressions, e.g. 'hello', 'how's things?'
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Non-Fluency Features

  • Fillers inserted into everyday speech, e.g. 'you know', 'sort of', 'I mean'. The purpose of a filler may give the speaker time to think, soften their force of statement or involve the listener
  • Filled pauses: hesitation, e.g. 'erm' and 'um'
  • Repetitions: 'yes, yes the one with the blue handle'
  • False starts: Changing from one grammatical structure to another, e.g. 'you could eat (.) no we will eat'
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Speaker Identity/Speaker Relationships

  • The following aspects of a speaker's identity may affect their speech patterns/utterances:

- Regional origin

- Social class

- Gender

- Ethnic identity

- Age

- Membership of a particular social group

- Relationship between speakers

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Types of Spoken Language

  • Monologue: single speaker addressing one or more listeners (e.g. lectures, sermon, plays, etc.)
  • Dialogue: involves interaction between two or more speakers (e.g. informal conversations, business meetings, debates, telephone conversations, etc.)
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Influences on Spoken Language

  • Context: different aspects surrounding the situation in which the conversation takes place
  • Audience: consider the persons being addressed and the speaker's relationship with them. Consider differences in status, age, gender, etc. between the different speakers. Do the speakers' styles converge (on the same wavelength) or diverge (difference wave lengths)?
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Functions of Spoken Language

  • A single utterance could have more than one function:

- Referential (utterances providing information): 'the train leaves at half past twelve'

- Expressive (express speaker's feelings): 'I'm very tired'

- Transactional (emphasis on getting something done): 'please complete this conversational analysis'

- Interactional (these utterances are social in nature): 'hi, how are you doing?', 'not too bad, thanks'

- Phatic (phatic communication/small talk): 'lovely weather today, isn't it?'

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Structure of Conversations

  • Adjacency pairs: these are two-part exchanges which follow a predicted pattern
  • Types include:

- Question and answer: A: what's the time? B: ten past three

- Greeting and greeting: A: hi B: hi

- Summons and answer: A: Dad! B: what now?

- Apology and acceptance: A: sorry B: That's okay

- Invitation and acceptance/refusal: A: would you like some tea? B: No thanks

  • Turn taking: speakers take turns during a conversation
  • Estimated that overlaps in conversation only accounts for 5% of speech
  • We are skilled pragmatically in knowing when to start a turn (judging the TRANSITIONAL RELEVANCE PLACE)
  • We are sensitive to a range of verbal and non-verbal cues as to when to take turns
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Structure of Conversations (Continued)

·         3-part exchange: this is where the second speaker's utternace generates a response from the first speaker

·         The mechanism of turn taking:

- In formal contexts, e.g. committee meeting controlled by a chair person

- In an interview situation, question and answer dictates the turn-taking between the interviewer and the interviewee

- Q&A adjacency pairs may also be found in informal conversations

- Tag questions may also be used to invite a response, e.g. 'we're going to the cinema tomorrow, aren't we?'

- A speaker's pitch in voice may decrease/deepen as they draw near the close of an utterance

- Eye movements are an important non-verbal cue

- Body movements may be useful

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Structure of Conversations (Continued)

·         Repairs:

- Self-repair: where a speaker realises they have made a mistake and 'repair' it themselves. For example, 'we started driving down the M62 (.) sorry the A63'

 Other repair: when a speaker is corrected by another speaker. For example, A: the lecture starts at 11.30pm B: don't you mean 11.30 in the morning?

·         Feedback: this is the means by which a speaker can tell whether someone is paying attention when they are making a turn:

- Verbal responses: 'I know, 'absolutely'

- Back channel noises: 'mm', 'huh huh'

- Non-verbal responses: eye contact, nodding the head, smiling. Non-verbal communication can be positive, but can also be negative, suggetsing boredom, e.g. when students look out of the window instead of at the teacher

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Structure of Conversations (Continued)

 ·         Closing a conversation:

- Ritual exchange of farewells: A: bye B: bye (pre-closing signal)

- The topic being discussed may be summarised in some way. 'I think that just about covers everything'

- Arrangements may be made for a further meeting. A: I'll see you next Tuesday then B: yes, okay, see you next Tuesday

- Closure on a phatic expression. 'Nice seeing you again'

- Non-verbal pre-closing signals: turnign away, rising from one's seat, collecting belongings, etc.

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