Functionalist theories of religion

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The sacred + profane (Durkheim)

Durkheim - key feature of religion a fundamental distraction between the sacred + the profane found in all religions.

Sacred - things set apart + forbidden, inspire feelings of awe, fear + wonder + are surrounded by taboos + prohibitions.

Profane - have no special significance - ordinary + mundane. 

Religion never simply set of beliefs. Also involved deinite rituals/practices in relation to the sacred, + these rituals are collective.

The fact that sacred things evoke such powerful feelings indicates to Durkheim that this is because they are symbols representing smth of great power. In his view, this can only be society itself, since society only thing powerful enough to command such feelings. When worship sacred symbols, therefire, people are worshipping society itself. 

For Durkheim, although sacred symbols vary from religion to religion, they all perform the essential function of uniting believers into a single moral community.

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Totemism (Durkheim)

D believed essence of all religion could be found by studying its simplest form, in simplest type of society - clan society. Uses studies of Arunta, an Aboriginal Australian tribe w/ clan system.

A clans - ands of kin who come together periodically to perform rituals involving worhsip of a sacred totem (clan's emblem eg animal or plant that symbolises origins + identity). Shared totemic rituals worshipping it serve to reingorce group's solidarity + sense of belonging.

For D, when clan members worship totemic animal, really worshipping societt - not aware of this. 

Totem - feelings of awe in clan's members b/c it represents power of group on which individual is dependent.

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Collective conscience (Durkheim)

D's view - sacred symbols represent society's collective conscience (shared norms, values etc that make social life + cooperation possible - would disintegrate w/o).

For D, regular shared religious rituals reinforce CC + maintain social integration. Participating in shared rituals binds people together - reminds them they're part of single moral community to which they owe their loyalty. Rituals remind them power of society - w/o, they're nothing, owe everything to it.

R also perofmrs important function for individual. religion reinvigorates +strengthens us to face life + motivates us to overcome obstacles that would otherwise defeat us by making us feel part of smth greater than ourselves.

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Cognitive functions of religion (Durkheim)

D sees religion as source of intellectual/cognitive capacites. 

In D's view, religion origin of concepts + categories we need for reasoning, understanding +of the world + communicating. 

Durkheim + Mauss (1903;2009) - book, Primitive Classification, argue religion provides basic categories eg time, space.

For D, religion origin of human thought, reason + science

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Criticisms (Durkheim)

Evidence of toemism unsound - Worsley (1956) - no sharp division between sacred + profane, + diff clans share same totems. If D right about totemism, doesn't provehe discovered essence of all other religions.

D's theory may apply better to small-scale societies w/ single religion. Harder to apply it to large-scale societies, where 2+ religious communities may be in conflict. His theory may explain social integration w/in communities, but not between.

Postmodernists eg Mestrovic (2011) argue D's ideas can't be applied to contemporary society, b/c increasing diversity has fragmented the collective conscience, so there is no longer a single shared value system for religion to reinforce.

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Psychological functions

Malinowski (1954) - agrees w/ Durkheim about promoting solidarity, but by helping cope w/ emotional stress that would undermine social solidarity. 2 Types of situation in which religion performs this role:
 1) Where outcome important but uncontrollable + uncertain - study of Trobriand Islanders - contrast lagoon fishing + ocean fishing
  - Lagoon: safe, predictable poisening method - no ritual
  - Ocean: dangerous, uncertain, 'canoe magic' - rituals to ensure safe + succesful expedition. Gives sense of control, eases tension, gives confidence. Sees ritual serving as 'god of the gaps' - fills gaps in human beings' control over world
 2) At time of life crises - events eg bird, pubert, marriag + death - major disruptive changes in social groups. Religion helps minimise disruption. M argues death main reason for existence of religious belief.

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Parsons: values and meaning

Parsons (1967) sees religion helping individuals cope w/ unforeseen events + uncontrollable outcomes. Also 2 other functions - religion in modern society:
 - creates and legitimates society's central values
 - primary source of meaning

Religion creates + legitimates society's basic norms + values by making them sacred. Promotes value consensus + social stability

Provides source of meaning - answers 'ultimate' questions eg why the good suffer. Defy our sense of justive + make life appear meaningless - religion provides answers, enables people to adjust to adverse events or circumstances + helps maintain stability

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