Forensic Psychology Evaluations.

Atavistic Form

• Goring - anatomical differences not as extreme as lombroso said but low intelligence was common. 
• Methodology not rigorous and conclusions bizarre.
• Failed to recognise that correlation doesn't imply cause & effect. 
• Could be poverty and deprivation which causes physical defects.

Somatotype

• Gluek & Gluek - 60% mesomorph delinquents and only 31% mesomorph non-delinquents. 
• Cortes & Gatti - in a sample of 100, 57% mesomorph compared with 19% controls.
• Remains unclear the link between mesomorphy and crime. 
• Muscular types invited into crime, more successful, behaviour continues.

Bowlby Study

• Criticised for concentrating on separation, could be mother is there but unloving. 
• Study supports idea of maternal deprivation. 
• Doesn't explain rational, thought-out crime. 
• Only theory that addresses emotions in criminal behaviour. 

Theory

• Many people without same sex parent grow to be fully law abiding. 
• Males have stronger superego apparently but statistically commit more crime.
• Defence mechanisms are unconscious so can't be tested.

General Theories

• Highlight importance of environment on criminal behaviour. 
• Try to apply simple principles to complex, varied behaviour. 
• Studies involve specific learning tasks - lack eco validity. 
• Criminal behaviour runs in families could be genetics.
• Don't explain why many offenders cease to offend as they get older. 

Differential Association

• Drew attention to fact that not all crimes are committed by psychopaths.
• Difficult to explain impulsive crimes. 
• Vague - how does learning take place?
• Difficulty testing - can't test number and strength of associations.

• Easily tested - EPI a reliable tool.
• No differences in EEG measures of introverts/extraverts.
• Zuckerman - Boredom arises from increased not decreased arousal.
• Smith - Sensation seekers have an excitable CNS so are more aroused/arousable.

Research

• Some studies - criminals score higher on extraversion and neuroticism. 
• Bartol - criminals less extravert but different cultural group. 
• Theory that claims to be universal but isn't is not valid. 
• Recognises that both environment and biology play a large part.

Genetic Transmission

Twin Studies - 55% concordance for MZ + 12% concordance for DZ 

Adoption Studies - between 1927 and 1947 - 14,000 adoptee offenders. 

Family Studies - 40% criminal sons of criminal fathers - 12% sons of non-criminal     fathers.

• Hard to seperate genetics from environmental factors 

Other Theories

• No single criminal gene identified.
• Have in common that criminals are biologically different. 
• Could be environment that leads to biological differences.

Fines

• Economical
• Source of income for the state. 
• Don't prevent offender from earning a living. 
• Don't stigmatise the offender
• Not exposed to criminalising influence of prisons. 
• Effective Deterrent.
• Flexible.
• Others can pay them however. 
• Often amount is not enough. 

Electronic Tagging

• Much less expensive than prison. 
• Provides order & structure - prevents slipping back into old habits.
• Family relationships can be strained due to curfews. 

• Causes negative psychological effects e.g. depression, institutionalisation. 
• Zimbardo study evaluation. 
• Bartol - prison for most can be brutal and devastating. 
• Suicide - most at risk, young males within 24 hours. 
• Self-Harm - found that women are more at risk of self harm. 
• Overcrowding can cause physical illness etc.
• Post-traumatic stress but could be caused by flashbacks to the crime.

• Individual differences in adjusting to prison. 
• Different prisons have different regimes - different effects. 
• Few controlled longitudinal studies completed. 
• Length of sentence and reason for imprisonment can have an effect.

• Goldstein - 30 studies reviewed - only 15-20% could use learned skills - increased to 50% after further training. 
• Study - records examined - SST group had lower level of conviction but when asked had committed more crimes, were possibly just better at talking to the police!
• No research to show whether lack of social skills even causes offending behaviour
• In some SST programmes there has been no records of participants even lacking social skills in the first place!
• SST is effective in the short term but not in the long term.

• Effective in changing specific behaviours under controlled conditions but not outside prison as there is no reward. 
• Requires little training - can be done by Para-professionals. 
• Economical
• Quickly controls unmanageable behaviour. 
• Easily evaluated & researched. 

BUT

• Requires a high degree of commitment from all those involved.
• Many other sources of re-inforcement in prison - e.g. admiration of other inmates etc.

• Study - only one person that completed an 8 session course showed any improvement.
• Hunter - reported considerable improvements in certain areas such as depression and impulsiveness. 
• Researchers disagree about whether there is a link between anger and violent crime. 
• Effective at reducing anger in the short term but not long-term. 
• Zamble & Quinsey - uncontrolled anger is a risk factor in predicting violence and recidivism. 
• Loza & Loza - interviewed Canadian offenders - no difference between violent and non-violent offenders. 
• Requires careful planning and a high level of commitment.